Osama bin Mohammed bin Awad bin Laden (play /oʊˈsɑːmə bɪn ˈlɑːdən/; Arabic: أسامة بن محمد بن عوض بن لادن, ʾUsāmah bin Muḥammad bin ʿAwaḍ bin Lādin; March 10, 1957 – May 2, 2011note a) was the founder of al-Qaeda, the jihadist organization responsible for the September 11 attacks on the United States and numerous other mass-casualty attacks against civilian and military targets.[4][5][6] He was a member of the wealthy Saudi bin Laden family, and an ethnic Yemeni Kindite.[7]
Bin Laden was on the American Federal Bureau of Investigation's (FBI) lists of Ten Most Wanted Fugitives and Most Wanted Terrorists for his involvement in the 1998 U.S. embassy bombings.[8][9][10] From 2001 to 2011, bin Laden was a major target of the War on Terror, with a US$25 million bounty by the Federal Bureau of Investigation.[11]
After being placed on the FBI's Most Wanted list, bin Laden remained in hiding during three U.S. presidential administrations. On May 2, 2011, bin Laden was shot and killed inside a private residential compound in Abbottabad, Pakistan, by U.S. Navy SEALs and CIA operatives in a covert operation ordered by U.S. President Barack Obama. Shortly after his death, bin Laden's body was buried at sea. Al-Qaeda acknowledged his death on May 6, 2011, vowing to retaliate.
Jumat, 10 Juni 2011
Kamis, 09 Juni 2011
REAL MADRID
Real Madrid" redirects here. For the basketball team, see Real Madrid Baloncesto. For other uses, see Real Madrid (disambiguation).
Page semi-protected
Real Madrid Real Madrid C.F. emblem
Full name Real Madrid Club de Fútbol[1]
Nickname(s) Los Blancos (The Whites)
Los Merengues (The Meringues)
Los Vikingos (The Vikings)
Founded March 6, 1902 (1902-03-06) (109 years ago)
as Madrid Football Club[2]
Ground Estadio Santiago Bernabéu, Madrid
(Capacity: 80,354)
Honorary
President Alfredo Di Stéfano
President Florentino Pérez
Head Coach José Mourinho
League La Liga
2010–11 La Liga, 2nd
Website Club home page
Home colours
Away colours
Current season
Real Madrid Club de Fútbol (Spanish pronunciation: [reˈal maˈðɾið ˈkluβ ðe ˈfutβol] Royal Madrid Football Club), commonly known as Real Madrid, is a professional football club based in Madrid, Spain. It is the most successful club in Spanish football and was voted by FIFA as the most successful football club of the 20th century, having won a record 31 La Liga titles, 18 Spanish "Copa del Rey" Cups, 8 Spanish Super Cups, a record 9 UEFA Champions Leagues, 2 UEFA Cups, 1 UEFA Supercup, and 3 Intercontinental Cups. Real Madrid was a founding member of FIFA and the now-defunct G-14 group of Europe's leading football clubs as well as its replacement, the European Club Association. The word "Real" in the club's name is the Spanish term for "royal", and was given by the King Alfonso XIII in 1920 together with the royal crown in the emblem – several other Spanish football teams also received this royal distinction: Real Sociedad, Real Unión de Irún, Real Betis, and Real Zaragoza.
Founded in 1902, Real Madrid has never been relegated from La Liga, the top league of Spanish football. The club established itself as a major force in both Spanish and European football during the 1950s. In the 1980s, the club had one of the best teams (known as La Quinta del Buitre) in Spain and Europe, winning two UEFA Cups, five consecutive Spanish championships, one Spanish Cup and three Spanish Super Cups.
The team's traditional home kit colour is white, although it originally adopted a blue oblique stripe on the shirt. Its crest has been changed several times in attempts to modernise or re-brand it. The current crest is a modified version of the one first adopted in the 1920s. Real Madrid's home ground is the 80,354-seater Santiago Bernabéu football stadium in downtown Madrid, where it has played since 1947. The Bernabéu was the venue for the European cup (or UEFA Champions League) finals of 1957, 1969, 1980 and 2010.
Real Madrid holds long-standing rivalries with other football clubs, most notably FC Barcelona, with matches between the two teams referred to as "el Clásico". Unlike most European football clubs, Real Madrid's members (socios) have owned and operated the club since its inception. The club is the world's richest football club (€401m) in terms of revenue and the second most valuable worth over €950m in 2008.[
Page semi-protected
Real Madrid Real Madrid C.F. emblem
Full name Real Madrid Club de Fútbol[1]
Nickname(s) Los Blancos (The Whites)
Los Merengues (The Meringues)
Los Vikingos (The Vikings)
Founded March 6, 1902 (1902-03-06) (109 years ago)
as Madrid Football Club[2]
Ground Estadio Santiago Bernabéu, Madrid
(Capacity: 80,354)
Honorary
President Alfredo Di Stéfano
President Florentino Pérez
Head Coach José Mourinho
League La Liga
2010–11 La Liga, 2nd
Website Club home page
Home colours
Away colours
Current season
Real Madrid Club de Fútbol (Spanish pronunciation: [reˈal maˈðɾið ˈkluβ ðe ˈfutβol] Royal Madrid Football Club), commonly known as Real Madrid, is a professional football club based in Madrid, Spain. It is the most successful club in Spanish football and was voted by FIFA as the most successful football club of the 20th century, having won a record 31 La Liga titles, 18 Spanish "Copa del Rey" Cups, 8 Spanish Super Cups, a record 9 UEFA Champions Leagues, 2 UEFA Cups, 1 UEFA Supercup, and 3 Intercontinental Cups. Real Madrid was a founding member of FIFA and the now-defunct G-14 group of Europe's leading football clubs as well as its replacement, the European Club Association. The word "Real" in the club's name is the Spanish term for "royal", and was given by the King Alfonso XIII in 1920 together with the royal crown in the emblem – several other Spanish football teams also received this royal distinction: Real Sociedad, Real Unión de Irún, Real Betis, and Real Zaragoza.
Founded in 1902, Real Madrid has never been relegated from La Liga, the top league of Spanish football. The club established itself as a major force in both Spanish and European football during the 1950s. In the 1980s, the club had one of the best teams (known as La Quinta del Buitre) in Spain and Europe, winning two UEFA Cups, five consecutive Spanish championships, one Spanish Cup and three Spanish Super Cups.
The team's traditional home kit colour is white, although it originally adopted a blue oblique stripe on the shirt. Its crest has been changed several times in attempts to modernise or re-brand it. The current crest is a modified version of the one first adopted in the 1920s. Real Madrid's home ground is the 80,354-seater Santiago Bernabéu football stadium in downtown Madrid, where it has played since 1947. The Bernabéu was the venue for the European cup (or UEFA Champions League) finals of 1957, 1969, 1980 and 2010.
Real Madrid holds long-standing rivalries with other football clubs, most notably FC Barcelona, with matches between the two teams referred to as "el Clásico". Unlike most European football clubs, Real Madrid's members (socios) have owned and operated the club since its inception. The club is the world's richest football club (€401m) in terms of revenue and the second most valuable worth over €950m in 2008.[
CHELSEA
Chelsea Football Club (play /ˈtʃɛlsiː/) are an English football club based in West London. Founded in 1905, they play in the Premier League and have spent most of their history in the top tier of English football. Chelsea have been English champions four times, FA Cup winners six times and League Cup winners four times. They have also been successful in Europe, winning the UEFA Cup Winners' Cup twice.[3]
The club had their first major success in 1955, when they won the league championship. Chelsea won several cup competitions during the 1960s and 1970s, but after that did not win another major title until 1997. The past decade has been the most successful period in Chelsea’s history, capped by winning Premier League titles in 2005, 2006 and 2010, the latter as part of their first league and FA Cup "Double".
Despite their name, the club are not based in Chelsea, but in neighbouring Fulham. The club's home is the 41,841 capacity Stamford Bridge football stadium in Fulham,[2] where they have played since their establishment. Since 2003 they have been owned by Russian billionaire Roman Abramovich.[4]
Chelsea's regular kit colours are royal blue shirts and shorts with white socks, the combination used since the 1960s. The club crest has been changed several times in attempts to modernise or re-brand; the current crest, featuring a ceremonial lion holding a staff, is a modified version of one first adopted in the 1950s.[5] The club has sustained the fifth highest average all-time attendance in English football.[6] Their average home gate for the 2010–11 season was 41,435, the sixth highest in the Premier League.
The club had their first major success in 1955, when they won the league championship. Chelsea won several cup competitions during the 1960s and 1970s, but after that did not win another major title until 1997. The past decade has been the most successful period in Chelsea’s history, capped by winning Premier League titles in 2005, 2006 and 2010, the latter as part of their first league and FA Cup "Double".
Despite their name, the club are not based in Chelsea, but in neighbouring Fulham. The club's home is the 41,841 capacity Stamford Bridge football stadium in Fulham,[2] where they have played since their establishment. Since 2003 they have been owned by Russian billionaire Roman Abramovich.[4]
Chelsea's regular kit colours are royal blue shirts and shorts with white socks, the combination used since the 1960s. The club crest has been changed several times in attempts to modernise or re-brand; the current crest, featuring a ceremonial lion holding a staff, is a modified version of one first adopted in the 1950s.[5] The club has sustained the fifth highest average all-time attendance in English football.[6] Their average home gate for the 2010–11 season was 41,435, the sixth highest in the Premier League.
REAL MADRID
Real Madrid Club de Fútbol adalah sebuah klub sepak bola Spanyol yang merupakan tim tersukses di dunia pada abad ke-20 menurut Fédération Internationale de Football Association, diikuti AC Milan di posisi kedua. Didirikan pada 6 Maret 1902, Madrid bermain di Divisi Utama Liga Spanyol atau yang dikenal sebagai Primera División. Sejak kompetisi tersebut dimulai pada 1928, Madrid belum pernah didegradasikan ke divisi bawah. Klub ini aslinya bernama Madrid Club de Fútbol, namun diizinkan menggunakan gelar Real setelah Raja Alfonso XIII dari Spanyol memberikan izin resmi kepada klub tersebut pada Juni 1920. Madrid bermain dalam kostum putih-putih, sehingga dijuluki Los merengues (Tim putih). Kandangnya berada di Stadion Santiago Bernabeu yang berkapasitas 80.354 penonton.
Sejak beberapa tahun terakhir, Madrid dikenal sebagai tim yang gemar membeli pemain-pemain top dunia, dan oleh karena itu diberikan julukan baru Los Galácticos (tim galaksi). Namun ironisnya, meski bertabur pemain bintang, klub ini selalu menuai prestasi buruk dengan gagalnya meraih satupun gelar pada tahun 2008-2010. Bahkan sejak Real Madrid terakhir kali menjuarai Liga Champions pada musim 2001-02, klub ini selalu meraih hasil buruk dengan hanya mencapai 16 besar sebelum akhirnya sampai babak semifinal musim 2010-11.
Sejarah
Klub Spanyol paling sukses ini boleh berbangga dengan berbagai gelar yang pernah diraihnya. Terbanyak menjuarai Primera Liga Spanyol, koleksi sembilan gelar Real Madrid di Liga Champions juga belum tertandingi klub manapun. Jika Madrid di era modern identik dengan Los Galacticos, klub ibukota Spanyol ini ternyata berdiri setelah terinspirasi kaum cendekiawan. Beberapa profesor dan mahasiswa asal Inggris memperkenalkan sepakbola dan Football Club Sky pun berdiri sebagai cikal bakal klub pada 1897. Tiga tahun berselang, klub terpecah menjadi Foot-Ball de Madrid dan Club Español de Madrid. Pada 1902, klub terakhir pecah lagi dan berdirilah Madrid Football Club, yang meraih gelar Copa del Rey 1905 dan turut mendirikan federasi sepakbola Spanyol pada 1909. Barulah pada 1920, klub menggunakan nama Real Madrid yang disematkan Raja Alfonso XIII.
Pada 1929, Madrid ikut memulai liga sepakbola Spanyol bersama sembilan klub lain. Hingga saat ini, bersama Barcelona dan Athletic Bilbao, Madrid menjadi klub yang tak pernah terdegradasi dari Primera Liga. Madrid memenangi gelar liga untuk kali pertama pada musim 1931/32. Pada periode ini, Madrid dipimpin presiden Santiago Bernabeu Yeste, yang membangun kembali stadion klub dan Ciudad Deportiva setelah rusak akibat Perang Saudara Spanyol. Awal 1953, Bernabeu mencetuskan ide menggunakan pemain berkelas dunia dari luar negeri. Penyerang kenamaan Argentina, Alfredo di Stefano, didatangkan. Sejarah pun mencatat kejayaan Madrid di Piala Champions sejak kali pertama digulirkan 1956. Madrid menjadi yang terbaik di Eropa selama lima edisi berturut-turut. Gelar keenam sukses diraih pada 1966.
Kejayaan juga terjadi di kancah domestik. Madrid tak tertahankan dengan menjuarai liga delapan kali pada periode 1960-an. Madrid mampu menjaga tradisi menjuarai liga pada setiap dasawarsa hingga terakhir kali melakukannya musim 2007/08. Pada 1980-an, bersama kuintet La Quinta del Buitre; yakni Emilio Butragueno, Manuel Sanchis, Martin Vazquez, Michel, dan Miguel Pardeza; Madrid lima kali berturut-turut menjuarai liga antara 1986 hingga 1990. Namun, mereka harus menunggu lama untuk melanjutkan kejayaan di Eropa. Baru pada 1997/98, 32 tahun setelah gelar terakhir, Madrid sukses menambah koleksi Liga Champions.
Pada dasawarsa 2000-an, kebijakan mengumpulkan pemain bintang, seperti yang pernah dilakukan Bernabeu, dilanjutkan presiden Florentino Perez. Pro dan kontra lahir, tapi Madrid tetap akan dikenal sebagai klub para pemain bintang.
Posisi Akhir Musim 2010-11: Ke-2
Market Value: €358.100.000 (2009/2010)401.4(€juta)
Tahun Pertama Masuk Primera Liga: 1928/29
Jumlah Musim Di Primera Liga: 83
Kegiatan Transfer: (hingga 11 April 2011) Masuk: Kaka (dari AC Milan), Alvaro Negredo (Almeria), Ezequiel Garay (Racing Santander), Antonio Adan (Real Madrid B), Raul Albiol (Valencia CF), Cristiano Ronaldo (Manchester United), Karim Benzema (Olympique Lyon), Esteban Granero (Getafe), Alvaro Arbeloa (Liverpool), Xabi Alonso ([[Liverpool F.C]), Sergio Canales (Racing Santander), Mesut Özil (Werder Bremen), Sami Khedira (Stuttgart), Ricardo Carvalho (Chelsea FC), Emmanuel Adebayor (Manchester City).
Keluar: Fabio Cannavaro (ke Juventus), Julien Faubert (West Ham United), Jordi Codina (Getafe), Javi Garcia (Benfica), Javier Saviola (Benfica), Daniel Parejo (Getafe), Gabriel Heinze (Olympique Marseille), Michel Salgado (Blackburn Rovers), Klaas-Jan Huntelaar (AC Milan), Rafael van der Vaart (Tottenham Hotspur)
Fédération Internationale de Football Association (FIFA) dan Majalah Forbes kembali melansir klub olahraga terkaya dunia untuk 2009/2010. Dari situ dapat ditarik daftar klub sepakbola terkaya di dunia, dan di luar dugaan Manchester United menyeruak ke posisi pertama setelah 5 tahun terakhir posisi itu dipegang oleh AC Milan (3 tahun 2004,2005,2006), Chelsea (1 tahun 2007), dan Real Madrid (1 tahun 2008).
Real Madrid masih menyandang status sebagai klub sepakbola memiliki pendapatan tertinggi di dunia selama lima tahun berturut-turut. Tidak itu saja. Madrid bahkan berhak dinobatkan sebagai klub olahraga terkaya di dunia dengan penghasilan €401 juta (£342 juta) dalam waktu satu tahun, demikian laporan Football Money League yang dilakukan oleh Deloitte, sebuah perusahaan akutansi ternama, Senin (1/3).
Los Merengues mengungguli Barcelona dan Manchester United yang masing-masing menempati posisi kedua dan ketiga. Yang mengejutkan, Azulgrana menggeser posisi United yang tahun lalu menempati peringkat kedua. Kesuksesan dalam meraih enam gelar pada 2009 tampaknya menjadi penyebab naiknya perolehan pendapatan Barca.
Dalam laporan itu, 20 klub top dunia mengalami kenaikan penghasilan yang cukup signifikan pada musim 2008/09. Jika total, seluruh penghasilan mereka mencapai €3,9 milyar. Tapi, catatan total itu masih rendah bila dibandingkan tahun lalu. Laporan yang dipublikasikan Deloitte itu merupakan yang paling kontemporer untuk melihat bagaimana perkembangan keuangan masing-masing klub."Kenaikan 10 persen penghasilan Real Madrid menjadi €401 juta (£342 juta) itu memang tak terpengaruh dengan penampilan buruk mereka di kompetisi lokal dan Eropa. Pendapatan hak siar Madrid meningkat sangat drastis," ujar Dan Jones, perwakilan dari Divisi Bisnis Olahraga Deloitte.
Selain Barcelona yang mendongkrak perolehan meningkat €57 juta dibandingkan tahun lalu, tercatat Arsenal juga meningkat secara fantastis. The Gunners masuk dalam daftar lima besar menggeser Chelsea dengan pendapatan meningkat tujuh persen menjadi £224 juta (€263 juta). Liverpool, Tottenham Hotspur, Manchester City, dan Newcastle United melengkapi capaian klub-klub Inggris dalam 20 klub terkaya di dunia.
[sunting] Real Madrid era 2000an
Menurut data-data dan statistik, Real menduduki posisi kedua sebagai tim paling sukses di Eropa. Posisi pertama ditempati AC Milan[rujukan?]. Sementara untuk level dunia, Real duduk di posisi keempat sebagai tim paling sukses. Seluruh raihan Real hingga tahun 2011 ini adalah mencapai 15 gelar (level Eropa dan dunia). Sementara untuk dalam negeri, tim ini tetap tim tersukses sepanjang sejarah sepakbola Spanyol.
[sunting] Daftar pemain
[sunting] Skuat utama
Hingga 14 September 2010.
Catatan: Bendera menunjukkan tim nasional pemain sesuai dengan peraturan FIFA. Pemain dapat saja mempunyai lebih dari satu kewarganegaraan.
No. Pos. Nama
1 Bendera Spanyol GK Iker Casillas Kapten
2 Bendera Portugal DF Ricardo Carvalho
3 Bendera Portugal DF Pepe
4 Bendera Spanyol DF Sergio Ramos (wakil kapten)
5 Bendera Argentina MF Fernando Gago
6 Bendera Togo FW Emmanuel Adebayor
7 Bendera Portugal FW Cristiano Ronaldo
8 Bendera Brasil MF Kaká
9 Bendera Perancis FW Karim Benzema
10 Bendera Perancis MF Lassana Diarra
11 Bendera Spanyol MF Esteban Granero
12 Bendera Brasil DF Marcelo (wakil kapten)
No. Pos. Nama
13 Bendera Spanyol GK Antonio Adán
14 Bendera Spanyol MF Xabi Alonso
16 Bendera Spanyol MF Sergio Canales
17 Bendera Spanyol DF Álvaro Arbeloa
18 Bendera Spanyol DF Raúl Albiol
19 Bendera Argentina DF Ezequiel Garay
20 Bendera Argentina FW Gonzalo Higuaín
21 Bendera Spanyol MF Pedro León
22 Bendera Argentina MF Ángel di María
23 Bendera Jerman MF Mesut Özil
24 Bendera Jerman MF Sami Khedira
25 Bendera Polandia GK Jerzy Dudek
Sejak beberapa tahun terakhir, Madrid dikenal sebagai tim yang gemar membeli pemain-pemain top dunia, dan oleh karena itu diberikan julukan baru Los Galácticos (tim galaksi). Namun ironisnya, meski bertabur pemain bintang, klub ini selalu menuai prestasi buruk dengan gagalnya meraih satupun gelar pada tahun 2008-2010. Bahkan sejak Real Madrid terakhir kali menjuarai Liga Champions pada musim 2001-02, klub ini selalu meraih hasil buruk dengan hanya mencapai 16 besar sebelum akhirnya sampai babak semifinal musim 2010-11.
Sejarah
Klub Spanyol paling sukses ini boleh berbangga dengan berbagai gelar yang pernah diraihnya. Terbanyak menjuarai Primera Liga Spanyol, koleksi sembilan gelar Real Madrid di Liga Champions juga belum tertandingi klub manapun. Jika Madrid di era modern identik dengan Los Galacticos, klub ibukota Spanyol ini ternyata berdiri setelah terinspirasi kaum cendekiawan. Beberapa profesor dan mahasiswa asal Inggris memperkenalkan sepakbola dan Football Club Sky pun berdiri sebagai cikal bakal klub pada 1897. Tiga tahun berselang, klub terpecah menjadi Foot-Ball de Madrid dan Club Español de Madrid. Pada 1902, klub terakhir pecah lagi dan berdirilah Madrid Football Club, yang meraih gelar Copa del Rey 1905 dan turut mendirikan federasi sepakbola Spanyol pada 1909. Barulah pada 1920, klub menggunakan nama Real Madrid yang disematkan Raja Alfonso XIII.
Pada 1929, Madrid ikut memulai liga sepakbola Spanyol bersama sembilan klub lain. Hingga saat ini, bersama Barcelona dan Athletic Bilbao, Madrid menjadi klub yang tak pernah terdegradasi dari Primera Liga. Madrid memenangi gelar liga untuk kali pertama pada musim 1931/32. Pada periode ini, Madrid dipimpin presiden Santiago Bernabeu Yeste, yang membangun kembali stadion klub dan Ciudad Deportiva setelah rusak akibat Perang Saudara Spanyol. Awal 1953, Bernabeu mencetuskan ide menggunakan pemain berkelas dunia dari luar negeri. Penyerang kenamaan Argentina, Alfredo di Stefano, didatangkan. Sejarah pun mencatat kejayaan Madrid di Piala Champions sejak kali pertama digulirkan 1956. Madrid menjadi yang terbaik di Eropa selama lima edisi berturut-turut. Gelar keenam sukses diraih pada 1966.
Kejayaan juga terjadi di kancah domestik. Madrid tak tertahankan dengan menjuarai liga delapan kali pada periode 1960-an. Madrid mampu menjaga tradisi menjuarai liga pada setiap dasawarsa hingga terakhir kali melakukannya musim 2007/08. Pada 1980-an, bersama kuintet La Quinta del Buitre; yakni Emilio Butragueno, Manuel Sanchis, Martin Vazquez, Michel, dan Miguel Pardeza; Madrid lima kali berturut-turut menjuarai liga antara 1986 hingga 1990. Namun, mereka harus menunggu lama untuk melanjutkan kejayaan di Eropa. Baru pada 1997/98, 32 tahun setelah gelar terakhir, Madrid sukses menambah koleksi Liga Champions.
Pada dasawarsa 2000-an, kebijakan mengumpulkan pemain bintang, seperti yang pernah dilakukan Bernabeu, dilanjutkan presiden Florentino Perez. Pro dan kontra lahir, tapi Madrid tetap akan dikenal sebagai klub para pemain bintang.
Posisi Akhir Musim 2010-11: Ke-2
Market Value: €358.100.000 (2009/2010)401.4(€juta)
Tahun Pertama Masuk Primera Liga: 1928/29
Jumlah Musim Di Primera Liga: 83
Kegiatan Transfer: (hingga 11 April 2011) Masuk: Kaka (dari AC Milan), Alvaro Negredo (Almeria), Ezequiel Garay (Racing Santander), Antonio Adan (Real Madrid B), Raul Albiol (Valencia CF), Cristiano Ronaldo (Manchester United), Karim Benzema (Olympique Lyon), Esteban Granero (Getafe), Alvaro Arbeloa (Liverpool), Xabi Alonso ([[Liverpool F.C]), Sergio Canales (Racing Santander), Mesut Özil (Werder Bremen), Sami Khedira (Stuttgart), Ricardo Carvalho (Chelsea FC), Emmanuel Adebayor (Manchester City).
Keluar: Fabio Cannavaro (ke Juventus), Julien Faubert (West Ham United), Jordi Codina (Getafe), Javi Garcia (Benfica), Javier Saviola (Benfica), Daniel Parejo (Getafe), Gabriel Heinze (Olympique Marseille), Michel Salgado (Blackburn Rovers), Klaas-Jan Huntelaar (AC Milan), Rafael van der Vaart (Tottenham Hotspur)
Fédération Internationale de Football Association (FIFA) dan Majalah Forbes kembali melansir klub olahraga terkaya dunia untuk 2009/2010. Dari situ dapat ditarik daftar klub sepakbola terkaya di dunia, dan di luar dugaan Manchester United menyeruak ke posisi pertama setelah 5 tahun terakhir posisi itu dipegang oleh AC Milan (3 tahun 2004,2005,2006), Chelsea (1 tahun 2007), dan Real Madrid (1 tahun 2008).
Real Madrid masih menyandang status sebagai klub sepakbola memiliki pendapatan tertinggi di dunia selama lima tahun berturut-turut. Tidak itu saja. Madrid bahkan berhak dinobatkan sebagai klub olahraga terkaya di dunia dengan penghasilan €401 juta (£342 juta) dalam waktu satu tahun, demikian laporan Football Money League yang dilakukan oleh Deloitte, sebuah perusahaan akutansi ternama, Senin (1/3).
Los Merengues mengungguli Barcelona dan Manchester United yang masing-masing menempati posisi kedua dan ketiga. Yang mengejutkan, Azulgrana menggeser posisi United yang tahun lalu menempati peringkat kedua. Kesuksesan dalam meraih enam gelar pada 2009 tampaknya menjadi penyebab naiknya perolehan pendapatan Barca.
Dalam laporan itu, 20 klub top dunia mengalami kenaikan penghasilan yang cukup signifikan pada musim 2008/09. Jika total, seluruh penghasilan mereka mencapai €3,9 milyar. Tapi, catatan total itu masih rendah bila dibandingkan tahun lalu. Laporan yang dipublikasikan Deloitte itu merupakan yang paling kontemporer untuk melihat bagaimana perkembangan keuangan masing-masing klub."Kenaikan 10 persen penghasilan Real Madrid menjadi €401 juta (£342 juta) itu memang tak terpengaruh dengan penampilan buruk mereka di kompetisi lokal dan Eropa. Pendapatan hak siar Madrid meningkat sangat drastis," ujar Dan Jones, perwakilan dari Divisi Bisnis Olahraga Deloitte.
Selain Barcelona yang mendongkrak perolehan meningkat €57 juta dibandingkan tahun lalu, tercatat Arsenal juga meningkat secara fantastis. The Gunners masuk dalam daftar lima besar menggeser Chelsea dengan pendapatan meningkat tujuh persen menjadi £224 juta (€263 juta). Liverpool, Tottenham Hotspur, Manchester City, dan Newcastle United melengkapi capaian klub-klub Inggris dalam 20 klub terkaya di dunia.
[sunting] Real Madrid era 2000an
Menurut data-data dan statistik, Real menduduki posisi kedua sebagai tim paling sukses di Eropa. Posisi pertama ditempati AC Milan[rujukan?]. Sementara untuk level dunia, Real duduk di posisi keempat sebagai tim paling sukses. Seluruh raihan Real hingga tahun 2011 ini adalah mencapai 15 gelar (level Eropa dan dunia). Sementara untuk dalam negeri, tim ini tetap tim tersukses sepanjang sejarah sepakbola Spanyol.
[sunting] Daftar pemain
[sunting] Skuat utama
Hingga 14 September 2010.
Catatan: Bendera menunjukkan tim nasional pemain sesuai dengan peraturan FIFA. Pemain dapat saja mempunyai lebih dari satu kewarganegaraan.
No. Pos. Nama
1 Bendera Spanyol GK Iker Casillas Kapten
2 Bendera Portugal DF Ricardo Carvalho
3 Bendera Portugal DF Pepe
4 Bendera Spanyol DF Sergio Ramos (wakil kapten)
5 Bendera Argentina MF Fernando Gago
6 Bendera Togo FW Emmanuel Adebayor
7 Bendera Portugal FW Cristiano Ronaldo
8 Bendera Brasil MF Kaká
9 Bendera Perancis FW Karim Benzema
10 Bendera Perancis MF Lassana Diarra
11 Bendera Spanyol MF Esteban Granero
12 Bendera Brasil DF Marcelo (wakil kapten)
No. Pos. Nama
13 Bendera Spanyol GK Antonio Adán
14 Bendera Spanyol MF Xabi Alonso
16 Bendera Spanyol MF Sergio Canales
17 Bendera Spanyol DF Álvaro Arbeloa
18 Bendera Spanyol DF Raúl Albiol
19 Bendera Argentina DF Ezequiel Garay
20 Bendera Argentina FW Gonzalo Higuaín
21 Bendera Spanyol MF Pedro León
22 Bendera Argentina MF Ángel di María
23 Bendera Jerman MF Mesut Özil
24 Bendera Jerman MF Sami Khedira
25 Bendera Polandia GK Jerzy Dudek
ARSENAL
Arsenal Football Club is a professional English Premier League football club based in North London. One of the most successful clubs in English football, they have won 13 First Division and Premier League titles and 10 FA Cups. They hold the record for the longest uninterrupted period in the English top flight and are the only side to have completed a Premier League season unbeaten.
Arsenal was founded in 1886 in Woolwich and in 1893 became the first club from the south of England to join the Football League. In 1913, they moved north across the city to Arsenal Stadium in Highbury. In the 1930s they won five League Championship titles and two FA Cups. After a lean period in the post-war years they won the League and FA Cup Double, in the 1970–71 season, and in the 1990s and first decade of the 21st century won two more Doubles and reached the 2006 UEFA Champions League Final.
Arsenal have a long-standing rivalry with neighbours Tottenham Hotspur, with whom they regularly contest the North London derby. Arsenal are also the third most valuable Association football club in the world as of 2010, valued at $1.2 billio
Arsenal was founded in 1886 in Woolwich and in 1893 became the first club from the south of England to join the Football League. In 1913, they moved north across the city to Arsenal Stadium in Highbury. In the 1930s they won five League Championship titles and two FA Cups. After a lean period in the post-war years they won the League and FA Cup Double, in the 1970–71 season, and in the 1990s and first decade of the 21st century won two more Doubles and reached the 2006 UEFA Champions League Final.
Arsenal have a long-standing rivalry with neighbours Tottenham Hotspur, with whom they regularly contest the North London derby. Arsenal are also the third most valuable Association football club in the world as of 2010, valued at $1.2 billio
CALIFORNIA
California (pronounced Listeni /kælɨˈfɔrnjə/) is a state located on the West Coast of the United States. It is by far the most populous U.S. state,[6] and the third-largest by land area (after Alaska and Texas). It is home to the nation's second- and sixth-largest census statistical areas (Los Angeles Metropolitan Area and San Francisco Bay Area), and eight of the nation's 50 most populous cities (Los Angeles, San Diego, San Jose, San Francisco, Fresno, Sacramento, Long Beach and Oakland).[7] The capital city is Sacramento.
California's diverse geography ranges from the Pacific Coast at the west side, to the Sierra Nevada mountains in the east—from the Redwood–Douglas-fir forests of the northwest, to the Mojave Desert areas in the southeast. The center of the state is dominated by Central Valley, a major agricultural area. California contains both the highest and lowest points in the contiguous United States (Mount Whitney and Death Valley), and has the third-longest coastline of all states (after Alaska and Florida). Earthquakes are a common occurrence due to the state's location along the Pacific Ring of Fire: about 37,000 are recorded annually.[8]
The name California once referred to a large area of North America claimed by Spain that included much of modern-day Southwestern United States and the Baja California peninsula. Beginning in the late 18th century, the area known as Alta California, comprising the California territory north of the Baja Peninsula, was colonized by the Spanish Empire as part of New Spain. In 1821, Alta California became a part of Mexico following its successful war for independence. Shortly after the beginning of the Mexican-American War in 1846, a group of American settlers in Sonoma declared an independent California Republic in Alta California. Though its existence was short-lived, its flag became the precursor for California's current state flag. American victory in the war led to the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, in which Mexico ceded Alta California to the United States. Western areas of Alta California became the state of California, which was admitted as the 31st state on September 9, 1850.
The California Gold Rush beginning in 1848 led to dramatic social and demographic change, with large scale immigration from the U.S. and abroad and an accompanying economic boom. Key developments in the early 20th century included the emergence of Los Angeles as the center of the American entertainment industry, and the growth of a large, state-wide tourism sector. The late 20th century saw the development of the technology and information sectors, punctuated by the growth of Silicon Valley. In addition to California's prosperous agricultural industry, other important contributors to its economy include aerospace, education, and manufacturing. If California were a country, it would be the eighth-largest economy in the world[9] and the 35th most populous nation.
Main article: Origin of the name California
The word California originally referred to the entire region composed of what is today the U.S. state of California, plus all or parts of Nevada, Utah, Arizona, and Wyoming, and the Baja California peninsula of Mexico.
The name California is most commonly believed to have derived from a fictional paradise peopled by Black Amazons and ruled by Queen Calafia.[10][11] The story of Calafia is recorded in a 1510 work The Exploits of Esplandian, written as a sequel to Amadis de Gaula by Spanish adventure writer Garci Rodríguez de Montalvo.[12][13][14] The kingdom of Queen Calafia, according to Montalvo, was said to be a remote land inhabited by griffins and other strange beasts, and rich in gold.
Know ye that at the right hand of the Indies there is an island called California, very close to that part of the Terrestrial Paradise, which was inhabited by black women without a single man among them, and they lived in the manner of Amazons. They were robust of body with strong passionate hearts and great virtue. The island itself is one of the wildest in the world on account of the bold and craggy rocks.[15]
The name California is the fifth-oldest surviving European place-name in the U.S. and was applied to what is now the southern tip of Baja California peninsula as the island of California by a Spanish expedition led by Diego de Becerra and Fortún Ximénez, who landed there in 1533 at the behest of Hernán Cortés.
California adjoins the Pacific Ocean to the west, Oregon to the north, Nevada and Arizona to the east, and the Mexican state of Baja California to the south. With an area of 160,000 square miles (414,000 km2), it is the third-largest state in the United States in size, after Alaska and Texas.[17] If it were a country, California would be the 59th-largest in the world in area.
In the middle of the state lies the California Central Valley, bounded by the coastal mountain ranges in the west, the Sierra Nevada to the east, the Cascade Range in the north and the Tehachapi Mountains in the south. The Central Valley is California's agricultural heartland and grows approximately one-third of the nation's food.[18][19]
Divided in two by the Sacramento-San Joaquin River Delta, the northern portion, the Sacramento Valley serves as the watershed of the Sacramento River, while the southern portion, the San Joaquin Valley is the watershed for the San Joaquin River; both areas derive their names from the rivers that transit them. With dredging, the Sacramento and the San Joaquin Rivers have remained sufficiently deep that several inland cities are seaports.
Topographic map of California
The Sacramento-San Joaquin River Delta serves as a critical water supply hub for the state. Water is routed through an extensive network of canals and pumps out of the delta, that traverse nearly the length of the state, including the Central Valley Project and the State Water Project. Water from the Delta provides drinking water for nearly 23 million people, almost two-thirds of the state's population, and provides water to farmers on the west side of the San Joaquin Valley. The Channel Islands are located off the southern coast.
The Sierra Nevada (Spanish for "snowy range") includes the highest peak in the contiguous forty-eight states, Mount Whitney, at 14,505 ft (4,421 m).[3] The range embraces Yosemite Valley, famous for its glacially carved domes, and Sequoia National Park, home to the giant sequoia trees, the largest living organisms on Earth, and the deep freshwater lake, Lake Tahoe, the largest lake in the state by volume.
To the east of the Sierra Nevada are Owens Valley and Mono Lake, an essential migratory bird habitat. In the western part of the state is Clear Lake, the largest freshwater lake by area entirely in California. Though Lake Tahoe is larger, it is divided by the California/Nevada border. The Sierra Nevada falls to Arctic temperatures in winter and has several dozen small glaciers, including Palisade Glacier, the southernmost glacier in the United States.
About 45 percent of the state's total surface area is covered by forests,[20] and California's diversity of pine species is unmatched by any other state. California contains more forestland than any other state except Alaska. Many of the trees in the California White Mountains are the oldest in the world; one Bristlecone pine has an age of 4,700 years.
In the south is a large inland salt lake, the Salton Sea. The south-central desert is called the Mojave; to the northeast of the Mojave lies Death Valley, which contains the lowest, hottest point in North America, Badwater Basin. The horizontal distance from the lowest point of Death Valley to the peak of Mount Whitney is less than 90 miles (140 km). Indeed, almost all of southeastern California is arid, hot desert, with routine extreme high temperatures during the summer. The southeastern border of California with Arizona is entirely formed by the Colorado River, from which the southern part of the state gets about half of its water.
Along the California coast are several major metropolitan areas, including Greater Los Angeles Area, the San Francisco Bay Area, and the San Diego metropolitan area.
As part of the Ring of Fire, California is subject to tsunamis, floods, droughts, Santa Ana winds, wildfires, landslides on steep terrain, and has several volcanoes. It sees numerous earthquakes due to several faults, in particular the San Andreas Fault.
Climate
Main article: Climate of California
Coastline at Big Sur.
California's climate varies from Mediterranean to subarctic.
Much of the state has a Mediterranean climate, with cool, rainy winters and dry summers. The cool California Current offshore often creates summer fog near the coast. Further inland, one encounters colder winters and hotter summers.
Northern parts of the state average higher annual rainfall than the south. California's mountain ranges influence the climate as well: some of the rainiest parts of the state are west-facing mountain slopes. Northwestern California has a temperate climate, and the Central Valley has a Mediterranean climate but with greater temperature extremes than the coast. The high mountains, including the Sierra Nevada, have a mountain climate with snow in winter and mild to moderate heat in summer.
Snow on the mountains of Southern California.
The east side of California's mountains produce a rain shadow, creating expansive deserts. The higher elevation deserts of eastern California see hot summers and cold winters, while the low deserts east of the southern California mountains experience hot summers and nearly frostless mild winters. Death Valley, a desert with large expanses below sea level, is considered the hottest location in North America; the highest temperature in the Western Hemisphere, 134 °F (57 °C), was recorded there on July 10, 1913.
Ecology
Main article: Ecology of California
California is one of the richest and most diverse parts of the world, and includes some of the most endangered ecological communities. California is part of the Nearctic ecozone and spans a number of terrestrial ecoregions.[21]
Calaveras Big Trees State Park
California's large number of endemic species includes relict species, which have died out elsewhere, such as the Catalina Ironwood (Lyonothamnus floribundus). Many other endemics originated through differentiation or adaptive radiation, whereby multiple species develop from a common ancestor to take advantage of diverse ecological conditions such as the California lilac (Ceanothus). Many California endemics have become endangered, as urbanization, logging, overgrazing, and the introduction of exotic species have encroached on their habitat.
Flora and fauna
California boasts several superlatives in its collection of flora: the largest trees, the tallest trees, and the oldest trees. California's native grasses are perennial plants.[22] After European contact, these were generally replaced by invasive species of European annual grasses; and, in modern times, California's hills turn a characteristic golden-brown in summer.[23]
Because California has the greatest diversity of climate and terrain, the state has six life zones which are the lower Sonoran (desert); upper Sonoran (foothill regions and some coastal lands), transition (coastal areas and moist northeastern counties); and the Canadian, Hudsonian, and Arctic Zones, comprising the state's highest elevations.[24]
Plant life in the dry climate of the lower Sonoran zone contains a diversity of native cactus, mesquite, and paloverde. The Joshua tree (Yucca brevifolia) is found in the Mojave Desert. Flowering plants include the dwarf desert poppy and a variety of asters. Fremont cottonwood and valley oak thrive in the Central Valley. The upper Sonoran zone includes the chaparral belt, characterized by forests of small shrubs, stunted trees, and herbaceous plants. Nemophila, mint, phacelia, viola, and the California poppy (Eschscholtzia californica)- the state flower- also flourish in this zone, along with the lupine, more species of which occur here than anywhere else in the world.[24]
The transition zone includes most of California's forests with the redwood (Sequoia sempervirens) and the "big tree" or giant sequoia (Sequoia gigantea), among the oldest living things on earth (some are said to have lived at least 4,000 years). Tanbark oak, California laurel, Sugar Pine, madrona, broad-leaved maple, and Douglas-fir also grow here. Forest floors are covered with swordfern, alumnroot, barrenwort, and trillium, and there are tickets of huckleberry, azalea, elder, and wild currant. Characteristic wild flowers include varieties of mariposa, tulip, and tiger and leopard lilies.[25]
The high elevations of the Canadian zone allow the Jeffrey Pine, red fir, and Lodgepole Pine to thrive. Brushy areas are abundant with dwarf manzanita and ceanothus; the unique Sierra puffball is also found here. Right below the timeberline, in the Hudsonian zone, the whitebark, foxtail, and silver pines grow. At about 10,500 ft (3,200 m), begins the Arctic zone, a treeless region whose flora include a number of wildflowers, including Sierra primrose, yellow columbine, alpine buttercup, and alpine shooting star.[24][26]
Common plants that have been introduced to the state include the eucalyptus, acacia, pepper tree, geranium, and Scotch broom. The species that are federally classified as endangered are the Contra Costa wallflower, Antioch Dunes evening primrose, Solano Grass, San Clemente Island larkspur, salt marsh bird's beak, McDonald's rock-cress, and Santa Barbara Island Liveforever. As of December 1997, eight-five plant species were listed as threatened or endangered.[24]
In the deserts of the lower Sonoran zone, the mammals include the jackrabbit, kangaroo rat, squirrel, and opossum. Common birds include the owl, roadrunner, Cactus Wren, and various species of hawk. The area's reptilian life include the sidewinder viper, desert tortoise, and horned toad. The upper Sonoran zone boasts mammals such as the antelope, brown-footed woodrat, and Ring-tailed Cat. Birds unique to this zone are the California thrasher, bush tit, and California Condor.[24][27][28][29]
In the transition zone, there are Colombian Black-tailed Deer, black bears, gray foxes, cougars, bobcats, and Roosevelt elk. Reptiles such as the garter snakes and rattlesnakes inhabit the zone. In addition, amphibians such as the water puppy and redwood salamander are common too. Birds such as the kingfisher, chickadee, towhee, and hummingbird thrive here as well.[24][30]
The Canadian zone mammals include the Mountain Weasel, Snowshoe Hare, Sierra chickadee, and several species of chipmunks. Conspicuous birds include the blue-fronted jay, Sierra hermit thrush, water ouzel, and Townsend solitaire. As one ascends into the Hudsonian zone, birds become scarcer. While the Sierra rosy finch is the only bird native to the high Arctic region, other bird species such as the hummingbird and Clark's Nutcracker. Principal mammals found in this region include the Sierra coney, White-tailed Jackrabbit, and the Bighorn Sheep. As of April 2003, the Bighorn Sheep was listed as endangered by the US Fish and Wildlife Service. The fauna found throughout several zones are the mule deer, coyote, mountain lion, Northern Flicker, and several species of hawk and sparrow.[24]
Aquatic life in California thrives, from the state's mountain lakes and streams to the rocky Pacific coastline. Numerous trout species are found, among them rainbow, golden, and Tahoe. Migratory species of salmon are common as well. Deep-sea life forms include sea bass, yellowfin tuna, barracuda, and several types of whale. Native to the cliffs of northern California are seals, sea lions, and many types of shorebirds, including migratory species.[24]
As of April 2003, 118 California animals were on the federal endangered list; 181 plants were listed as endangered or threatened. Endangered animals include the San Joaquin kitfox, Point Arena mountain beaver, Pacific pocket mouse, Salt Marsh Harvest Mouse, Morro Bay kangaroo rat (and five other species of kangaroo rat), Amargosa vole, California Least Tern, California Condor, Loggerhead Shrike, San Clemente sage sparrow, San Francisco garter snake, five species of salamander, three species of chub, and two species of pupfish. Eleven butterflies are also endangered and two that are threatened are on the federal list. Among threatened animals are the coastal California Gnatcatcher, Paiute cutthroat trout, southern sea otter, and Northern Spotted Owl. California has a total of 290,821 acres (1,176.91 km2) of National Wildlife Refuges.[24] As of September 2010, 123 California animals were listed as either endangered or threatened on the federal list provided by the US Fish & Wildlife Service.[31] Also, as of the same year, 178 species of California plants were listed either as endangered or threatened on this federal list.[31]
Rivers
Main article: List of rivers of California
The state's coasts, rivers, and other bodies of water are looked after by the California Coastal Commission
The two most prominent rivers within California are the Sacramento River and the San Joaquin River, which drain the Central Valley and the west slope of the Sierra Nevada and flow to the Pacific Ocean through San Francisco Bay. Several major tributaries feed into the Sacramento and the San Joaquin, including the Pit River, the Tuolumne River, and the Feather River.
The Owens River takes runoff from the southeastern slopes of the Sierra Nevada and flows into Owens Lake. The Eel River and Salinas River each drain portions of the California coast, north and south of San Francisco Bay, respectively. The Mojave River is the primary watercourse in the Mojave Desert, and the Santa Ana River drains much of the Transverse Ranges as it bisects Southern California.
Some other important rivers are the Klamath River and the Trinity River in the far north coast, and the Colorado River on the southeast border with Arizona.
California's diverse geography ranges from the Pacific Coast at the west side, to the Sierra Nevada mountains in the east—from the Redwood–Douglas-fir forests of the northwest, to the Mojave Desert areas in the southeast. The center of the state is dominated by Central Valley, a major agricultural area. California contains both the highest and lowest points in the contiguous United States (Mount Whitney and Death Valley), and has the third-longest coastline of all states (after Alaska and Florida). Earthquakes are a common occurrence due to the state's location along the Pacific Ring of Fire: about 37,000 are recorded annually.[8]
The name California once referred to a large area of North America claimed by Spain that included much of modern-day Southwestern United States and the Baja California peninsula. Beginning in the late 18th century, the area known as Alta California, comprising the California territory north of the Baja Peninsula, was colonized by the Spanish Empire as part of New Spain. In 1821, Alta California became a part of Mexico following its successful war for independence. Shortly after the beginning of the Mexican-American War in 1846, a group of American settlers in Sonoma declared an independent California Republic in Alta California. Though its existence was short-lived, its flag became the precursor for California's current state flag. American victory in the war led to the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, in which Mexico ceded Alta California to the United States. Western areas of Alta California became the state of California, which was admitted as the 31st state on September 9, 1850.
The California Gold Rush beginning in 1848 led to dramatic social and demographic change, with large scale immigration from the U.S. and abroad and an accompanying economic boom. Key developments in the early 20th century included the emergence of Los Angeles as the center of the American entertainment industry, and the growth of a large, state-wide tourism sector. The late 20th century saw the development of the technology and information sectors, punctuated by the growth of Silicon Valley. In addition to California's prosperous agricultural industry, other important contributors to its economy include aerospace, education, and manufacturing. If California were a country, it would be the eighth-largest economy in the world[9] and the 35th most populous nation.
Main article: Origin of the name California
The word California originally referred to the entire region composed of what is today the U.S. state of California, plus all or parts of Nevada, Utah, Arizona, and Wyoming, and the Baja California peninsula of Mexico.
The name California is most commonly believed to have derived from a fictional paradise peopled by Black Amazons and ruled by Queen Calafia.[10][11] The story of Calafia is recorded in a 1510 work The Exploits of Esplandian, written as a sequel to Amadis de Gaula by Spanish adventure writer Garci Rodríguez de Montalvo.[12][13][14] The kingdom of Queen Calafia, according to Montalvo, was said to be a remote land inhabited by griffins and other strange beasts, and rich in gold.
Know ye that at the right hand of the Indies there is an island called California, very close to that part of the Terrestrial Paradise, which was inhabited by black women without a single man among them, and they lived in the manner of Amazons. They were robust of body with strong passionate hearts and great virtue. The island itself is one of the wildest in the world on account of the bold and craggy rocks.[15]
The name California is the fifth-oldest surviving European place-name in the U.S. and was applied to what is now the southern tip of Baja California peninsula as the island of California by a Spanish expedition led by Diego de Becerra and Fortún Ximénez, who landed there in 1533 at the behest of Hernán Cortés.
California adjoins the Pacific Ocean to the west, Oregon to the north, Nevada and Arizona to the east, and the Mexican state of Baja California to the south. With an area of 160,000 square miles (414,000 km2), it is the third-largest state in the United States in size, after Alaska and Texas.[17] If it were a country, California would be the 59th-largest in the world in area.
In the middle of the state lies the California Central Valley, bounded by the coastal mountain ranges in the west, the Sierra Nevada to the east, the Cascade Range in the north and the Tehachapi Mountains in the south. The Central Valley is California's agricultural heartland and grows approximately one-third of the nation's food.[18][19]
Divided in two by the Sacramento-San Joaquin River Delta, the northern portion, the Sacramento Valley serves as the watershed of the Sacramento River, while the southern portion, the San Joaquin Valley is the watershed for the San Joaquin River; both areas derive their names from the rivers that transit them. With dredging, the Sacramento and the San Joaquin Rivers have remained sufficiently deep that several inland cities are seaports.
Topographic map of California
The Sacramento-San Joaquin River Delta serves as a critical water supply hub for the state. Water is routed through an extensive network of canals and pumps out of the delta, that traverse nearly the length of the state, including the Central Valley Project and the State Water Project. Water from the Delta provides drinking water for nearly 23 million people, almost two-thirds of the state's population, and provides water to farmers on the west side of the San Joaquin Valley. The Channel Islands are located off the southern coast.
The Sierra Nevada (Spanish for "snowy range") includes the highest peak in the contiguous forty-eight states, Mount Whitney, at 14,505 ft (4,421 m).[3] The range embraces Yosemite Valley, famous for its glacially carved domes, and Sequoia National Park, home to the giant sequoia trees, the largest living organisms on Earth, and the deep freshwater lake, Lake Tahoe, the largest lake in the state by volume.
To the east of the Sierra Nevada are Owens Valley and Mono Lake, an essential migratory bird habitat. In the western part of the state is Clear Lake, the largest freshwater lake by area entirely in California. Though Lake Tahoe is larger, it is divided by the California/Nevada border. The Sierra Nevada falls to Arctic temperatures in winter and has several dozen small glaciers, including Palisade Glacier, the southernmost glacier in the United States.
About 45 percent of the state's total surface area is covered by forests,[20] and California's diversity of pine species is unmatched by any other state. California contains more forestland than any other state except Alaska. Many of the trees in the California White Mountains are the oldest in the world; one Bristlecone pine has an age of 4,700 years.
In the south is a large inland salt lake, the Salton Sea. The south-central desert is called the Mojave; to the northeast of the Mojave lies Death Valley, which contains the lowest, hottest point in North America, Badwater Basin. The horizontal distance from the lowest point of Death Valley to the peak of Mount Whitney is less than 90 miles (140 km). Indeed, almost all of southeastern California is arid, hot desert, with routine extreme high temperatures during the summer. The southeastern border of California with Arizona is entirely formed by the Colorado River, from which the southern part of the state gets about half of its water.
Along the California coast are several major metropolitan areas, including Greater Los Angeles Area, the San Francisco Bay Area, and the San Diego metropolitan area.
As part of the Ring of Fire, California is subject to tsunamis, floods, droughts, Santa Ana winds, wildfires, landslides on steep terrain, and has several volcanoes. It sees numerous earthquakes due to several faults, in particular the San Andreas Fault.
Climate
Main article: Climate of California
Coastline at Big Sur.
California's climate varies from Mediterranean to subarctic.
Much of the state has a Mediterranean climate, with cool, rainy winters and dry summers. The cool California Current offshore often creates summer fog near the coast. Further inland, one encounters colder winters and hotter summers.
Northern parts of the state average higher annual rainfall than the south. California's mountain ranges influence the climate as well: some of the rainiest parts of the state are west-facing mountain slopes. Northwestern California has a temperate climate, and the Central Valley has a Mediterranean climate but with greater temperature extremes than the coast. The high mountains, including the Sierra Nevada, have a mountain climate with snow in winter and mild to moderate heat in summer.
Snow on the mountains of Southern California.
The east side of California's mountains produce a rain shadow, creating expansive deserts. The higher elevation deserts of eastern California see hot summers and cold winters, while the low deserts east of the southern California mountains experience hot summers and nearly frostless mild winters. Death Valley, a desert with large expanses below sea level, is considered the hottest location in North America; the highest temperature in the Western Hemisphere, 134 °F (57 °C), was recorded there on July 10, 1913.
Ecology
Main article: Ecology of California
California is one of the richest and most diverse parts of the world, and includes some of the most endangered ecological communities. California is part of the Nearctic ecozone and spans a number of terrestrial ecoregions.[21]
Calaveras Big Trees State Park
California's large number of endemic species includes relict species, which have died out elsewhere, such as the Catalina Ironwood (Lyonothamnus floribundus). Many other endemics originated through differentiation or adaptive radiation, whereby multiple species develop from a common ancestor to take advantage of diverse ecological conditions such as the California lilac (Ceanothus). Many California endemics have become endangered, as urbanization, logging, overgrazing, and the introduction of exotic species have encroached on their habitat.
Flora and fauna
California boasts several superlatives in its collection of flora: the largest trees, the tallest trees, and the oldest trees. California's native grasses are perennial plants.[22] After European contact, these were generally replaced by invasive species of European annual grasses; and, in modern times, California's hills turn a characteristic golden-brown in summer.[23]
Because California has the greatest diversity of climate and terrain, the state has six life zones which are the lower Sonoran (desert); upper Sonoran (foothill regions and some coastal lands), transition (coastal areas and moist northeastern counties); and the Canadian, Hudsonian, and Arctic Zones, comprising the state's highest elevations.[24]
Plant life in the dry climate of the lower Sonoran zone contains a diversity of native cactus, mesquite, and paloverde. The Joshua tree (Yucca brevifolia) is found in the Mojave Desert. Flowering plants include the dwarf desert poppy and a variety of asters. Fremont cottonwood and valley oak thrive in the Central Valley. The upper Sonoran zone includes the chaparral belt, characterized by forests of small shrubs, stunted trees, and herbaceous plants. Nemophila, mint, phacelia, viola, and the California poppy (Eschscholtzia californica)- the state flower- also flourish in this zone, along with the lupine, more species of which occur here than anywhere else in the world.[24]
The transition zone includes most of California's forests with the redwood (Sequoia sempervirens) and the "big tree" or giant sequoia (Sequoia gigantea), among the oldest living things on earth (some are said to have lived at least 4,000 years). Tanbark oak, California laurel, Sugar Pine, madrona, broad-leaved maple, and Douglas-fir also grow here. Forest floors are covered with swordfern, alumnroot, barrenwort, and trillium, and there are tickets of huckleberry, azalea, elder, and wild currant. Characteristic wild flowers include varieties of mariposa, tulip, and tiger and leopard lilies.[25]
The high elevations of the Canadian zone allow the Jeffrey Pine, red fir, and Lodgepole Pine to thrive. Brushy areas are abundant with dwarf manzanita and ceanothus; the unique Sierra puffball is also found here. Right below the timeberline, in the Hudsonian zone, the whitebark, foxtail, and silver pines grow. At about 10,500 ft (3,200 m), begins the Arctic zone, a treeless region whose flora include a number of wildflowers, including Sierra primrose, yellow columbine, alpine buttercup, and alpine shooting star.[24][26]
Common plants that have been introduced to the state include the eucalyptus, acacia, pepper tree, geranium, and Scotch broom. The species that are federally classified as endangered are the Contra Costa wallflower, Antioch Dunes evening primrose, Solano Grass, San Clemente Island larkspur, salt marsh bird's beak, McDonald's rock-cress, and Santa Barbara Island Liveforever. As of December 1997, eight-five plant species were listed as threatened or endangered.[24]
In the deserts of the lower Sonoran zone, the mammals include the jackrabbit, kangaroo rat, squirrel, and opossum. Common birds include the owl, roadrunner, Cactus Wren, and various species of hawk. The area's reptilian life include the sidewinder viper, desert tortoise, and horned toad. The upper Sonoran zone boasts mammals such as the antelope, brown-footed woodrat, and Ring-tailed Cat. Birds unique to this zone are the California thrasher, bush tit, and California Condor.[24][27][28][29]
In the transition zone, there are Colombian Black-tailed Deer, black bears, gray foxes, cougars, bobcats, and Roosevelt elk. Reptiles such as the garter snakes and rattlesnakes inhabit the zone. In addition, amphibians such as the water puppy and redwood salamander are common too. Birds such as the kingfisher, chickadee, towhee, and hummingbird thrive here as well.[24][30]
The Canadian zone mammals include the Mountain Weasel, Snowshoe Hare, Sierra chickadee, and several species of chipmunks. Conspicuous birds include the blue-fronted jay, Sierra hermit thrush, water ouzel, and Townsend solitaire. As one ascends into the Hudsonian zone, birds become scarcer. While the Sierra rosy finch is the only bird native to the high Arctic region, other bird species such as the hummingbird and Clark's Nutcracker. Principal mammals found in this region include the Sierra coney, White-tailed Jackrabbit, and the Bighorn Sheep. As of April 2003, the Bighorn Sheep was listed as endangered by the US Fish and Wildlife Service. The fauna found throughout several zones are the mule deer, coyote, mountain lion, Northern Flicker, and several species of hawk and sparrow.[24]
Aquatic life in California thrives, from the state's mountain lakes and streams to the rocky Pacific coastline. Numerous trout species are found, among them rainbow, golden, and Tahoe. Migratory species of salmon are common as well. Deep-sea life forms include sea bass, yellowfin tuna, barracuda, and several types of whale. Native to the cliffs of northern California are seals, sea lions, and many types of shorebirds, including migratory species.[24]
As of April 2003, 118 California animals were on the federal endangered list; 181 plants were listed as endangered or threatened. Endangered animals include the San Joaquin kitfox, Point Arena mountain beaver, Pacific pocket mouse, Salt Marsh Harvest Mouse, Morro Bay kangaroo rat (and five other species of kangaroo rat), Amargosa vole, California Least Tern, California Condor, Loggerhead Shrike, San Clemente sage sparrow, San Francisco garter snake, five species of salamander, three species of chub, and two species of pupfish. Eleven butterflies are also endangered and two that are threatened are on the federal list. Among threatened animals are the coastal California Gnatcatcher, Paiute cutthroat trout, southern sea otter, and Northern Spotted Owl. California has a total of 290,821 acres (1,176.91 km2) of National Wildlife Refuges.[24] As of September 2010, 123 California animals were listed as either endangered or threatened on the federal list provided by the US Fish & Wildlife Service.[31] Also, as of the same year, 178 species of California plants were listed either as endangered or threatened on this federal list.[31]
Rivers
Main article: List of rivers of California
The state's coasts, rivers, and other bodies of water are looked after by the California Coastal Commission
The two most prominent rivers within California are the Sacramento River and the San Joaquin River, which drain the Central Valley and the west slope of the Sierra Nevada and flow to the Pacific Ocean through San Francisco Bay. Several major tributaries feed into the Sacramento and the San Joaquin, including the Pit River, the Tuolumne River, and the Feather River.
The Owens River takes runoff from the southeastern slopes of the Sierra Nevada and flows into Owens Lake. The Eel River and Salinas River each drain portions of the California coast, north and south of San Francisco Bay, respectively. The Mojave River is the primary watercourse in the Mojave Desert, and the Santa Ana River drains much of the Transverse Ranges as it bisects Southern California.
Some other important rivers are the Klamath River and the Trinity River in the far north coast, and the Colorado River on the southeast border with Arizona.
BARACK OBAMA
Barack Obama
President of the United States. Born Barack Hussein Obama on August 4, 1961, in Honolulu, Hawaii. Obama's mother, Ann Dunham, grew up in Wichita, Kansas, where her father worked on oil rigs during the Depression. After the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor, Dunham's father, Stanley, enlisted in the service and marched across Europe in Patton's army. Dunham's mother, Madelyn, went to work on a bomber assembly line. After the war, the couple studied on the G.I. Bill, bought a house through the Federal Housing Program and, after several moves, landed in Hawaii.
Obama's father, Barack Obama, Sr., was born of Luo ethnicity in Nyanza Province, Kenya. The elder Obama grew up herding goats in Africa, eventually earning a scholarship that allowed him to leave Kenya and pursue his dreams of college in Hawaii. While studying at the University of Hawaii in Manoa, Obama, Sr. met fellow student, Ann Dunham. They married on February 2, 1961. Barack was born six months later.
Obama's parents separated when he was two years old, later divorcing. Obama, Sr. went on to Harvard to pursue Ph.D. studies, and then returned to Kenya in 1965. In 1966, Dunham married Lolo Soetoro, another East–West Center student from Indonesia. A year later, the family moved to Jakarta, Indonesia, where Obama's half-sister Maya Soetoro Ng was born. Several incidents in Indonesia left Dunham afraid for her son's safety and education so, at the age of 10, Barack was sent back to Hawaii to live with his maternal grandparents. His mother and sister later joined them.
While living with his grandparents, Obama enrolled in the esteemed Punahou Academy, excelling in basketball and graduating with academic honors in 1979. As one of only three black students at the school, Obama became conscious of racism and what it meant to be African-American. He later described how he struggled to reconcile social perceptions of his multiracial heritage with his own sense of self. "I began to notice there was nobody like me in the Sears, Roebuck Christmas catalog...and that Santa was a white man," he said. "I went to the bathroom and stood in front of the mirror with all my senses and limbs seemingly intact, looking the way I had always looked, and wondered if something was wrong with me."
Obama also struggled with the absence of his father, who he saw only once more after his parents divorced, in a brief 1971 visit. "[My father] had left paradise, and nothing that my mother or grandparents told me could obviate that single, unassailable fact," he later reflected. "They couldn't describe what it might have been like had he stayed." Obama, Sr. eventually lost his legs in an automobile accident, also losing his job as a result. In 1982, he died in yet another car accident while traveling in Nairobi. Obama, Jr. was 22 years old when he received the news of his father's passing. "At the time of his death, my father remained a myth to me," Obama said, "both more and less than a man."
President of the United States. Born Barack Hussein Obama on August 4, 1961, in Honolulu, Hawaii. Obama's mother, Ann Dunham, grew up in Wichita, Kansas, where her father worked on oil rigs during the Depression. After the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor, Dunham's father, Stanley, enlisted in the service and marched across Europe in Patton's army. Dunham's mother, Madelyn, went to work on a bomber assembly line. After the war, the couple studied on the G.I. Bill, bought a house through the Federal Housing Program and, after several moves, landed in Hawaii.
Obama's father, Barack Obama, Sr., was born of Luo ethnicity in Nyanza Province, Kenya. The elder Obama grew up herding goats in Africa, eventually earning a scholarship that allowed him to leave Kenya and pursue his dreams of college in Hawaii. While studying at the University of Hawaii in Manoa, Obama, Sr. met fellow student, Ann Dunham. They married on February 2, 1961. Barack was born six months later.
Obama's parents separated when he was two years old, later divorcing. Obama, Sr. went on to Harvard to pursue Ph.D. studies, and then returned to Kenya in 1965. In 1966, Dunham married Lolo Soetoro, another East–West Center student from Indonesia. A year later, the family moved to Jakarta, Indonesia, where Obama's half-sister Maya Soetoro Ng was born. Several incidents in Indonesia left Dunham afraid for her son's safety and education so, at the age of 10, Barack was sent back to Hawaii to live with his maternal grandparents. His mother and sister later joined them.
While living with his grandparents, Obama enrolled in the esteemed Punahou Academy, excelling in basketball and graduating with academic honors in 1979. As one of only three black students at the school, Obama became conscious of racism and what it meant to be African-American. He later described how he struggled to reconcile social perceptions of his multiracial heritage with his own sense of self. "I began to notice there was nobody like me in the Sears, Roebuck Christmas catalog...and that Santa was a white man," he said. "I went to the bathroom and stood in front of the mirror with all my senses and limbs seemingly intact, looking the way I had always looked, and wondered if something was wrong with me."
Obama also struggled with the absence of his father, who he saw only once more after his parents divorced, in a brief 1971 visit. "[My father] had left paradise, and nothing that my mother or grandparents told me could obviate that single, unassailable fact," he later reflected. "They couldn't describe what it might have been like had he stayed." Obama, Sr. eventually lost his legs in an automobile accident, also losing his job as a result. In 1982, he died in yet another car accident while traveling in Nairobi. Obama, Jr. was 22 years old when he received the news of his father's passing. "At the time of his death, my father remained a myth to me," Obama said, "both more and less than a man."
BARACK OBAMA
Barack Hussein Obama II (Listeni /bəˈrɑːk huːˈseɪn oʊˈbɑːmə/; born August 4, 1961) is the 44th and current President of the United States. He is the first African American to hold the office. Obama previously served as a United States senator from Illinois, from January 2005 until he resigned following his victory in the 2008 presidential election.
A native of Honolulu, Hawaii, Obama is a graduate of Columbia University and Harvard Law School, where he was the president of the Harvard Law Review. He was a community organizer in Chicago before earning his law degree. He worked as a civil rights attorney in Chicago and taught constitutional law at the University of Chicago Law School from 1992 to 2004.
Obama served three terms representing the 13th district in the Illinois Senate from 1997 to 2004. Following an unsuccessful bid against the Democratic incumbent for a seat in the United States House of Representatives in 2000, he ran for United States Senate in 2004. Several events brought him to national attention during the campaign, including his victory in the March 2004 Democratic primary and his keynote address at the Democratic National Convention in July 2004. He won election to the U.S. Senate in Illinois in November 2004. His presidential campaign began in February 2007, and after a close campaign in the 2008 Democratic Party presidential primaries against Hillary Rodham Clinton, he won his party's nomination. In the 2008 presidential election, he defeated Republican nominee John McCain, and was inaugurated as president on January 20, 2009. In October 2009, Obama was named the 2009 Nobel Peace Prize laureate.
As president, Obama signed economic stimulus legislation in the form of the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act in February 2009 and the Tax Relief, Unemployment Insurance Reauthorization, and Job Creation Act of 2010 in December 2010. Other domestic policy initiatives include the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act, the Dodd–Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act and the Don't Ask, Don't Tell Repeal Act of 2010.
In foreign policy, Obama gradually withdrew combat troops from Iraq, increased troop levels in Afghanistan, signed the New START arms control treaty with Russia, and ordered enforcement of the United Nations-sanctioned no-fly zone over Libya in early 2011. On May 1, 2011, Obama announced that a small team of American military forces, acting on his direct order, had killed al-Qaeda leader Osama bin Laden in Pakistan.
In April 2011, Obama declared his intention to seek re-election in the 2012 presidential election.
Obama was born on August 4, 1961, at Kapiʻolani Maternity & Gynecological Hospital (now called Kapiʻolani Medical Center for Women and Children) in Honolulu, Hawaii, the first President to have been born in Hawaii. His mother, Stanley Ann Dunham, was born in Wichita, Kansas and was of mostly English descent.[7] His father, Barack Obama, Sr., was a Luo from Nyang'oma Kogelo, Nyanza Province, Kenya. Obama's parents met in 1960 in a Russian language class at the University of Hawaii at Mānoa, where his father was a foreign student on scholarship. The couple married on February 2, 1961, separated when Obama Sr. went to Harvard University on scholarship, and divorced in 1964.Obama Sr. remarried and returned to Kenya, visiting Barack in Hawaii only once, in 1971. He died in an automobile accident in 1982.
After her divorce, Dunham married Indonesian student Lolo Soetoro, who was attending college in Hawaii. When Suharto, a military leader in Soetoro's home country, came to power in 1967, all Indonesian students studying abroad were recalled, and the family moved to the Menteng neighborhood of Jakarta. From ages six to ten, Obama attended local schools in Jakarta, including Besuki Public School and St. Francis of Assisi School.
In 1971, Obama returned to Honolulu to live with his maternal grandparents, Madelyn and Stanley Armour Dunham, and attended Punahou School, a private college preparatory school, from the fifth grade until his graduation from high school in 1979. Obama's mother returned to Hawaii in 1972, remaining there until 1977 when she went back to Indonesia to work as an anthropological field worker. She finally returned to Hawaii in 1994 and lived there for one year, before dying of ovarian cancer.
A young boy possibly in his early teens, a younger girl (about age 5), a grown woman and an elderly man, sit on a lawn wearing contemporary circa-1970 attire. The adults wear sunglasses and the boy wears sandals.
Barack Obama and half-sister Maya Soetoro-Ng, with their mother Ann Dunham and grandfather Stanley Dunham, in Hawaii (early 1970s)
Of his early childhood, Obama recalled, "That my father looked nothing like the people around me—that he was black as pitch, my mother white as milk—barely registered in my mind."[16] He described his struggles as a young adult to reconcile social perceptions of his multiracial heritage. Reflecting later on his formative years in Honolulu, Obama wrote: "The opportunity that Hawaii offered—to experience a variety of cultures in a climate of mutual respect—became an integral part of my world view, and a basis for the values that I hold most dear." Obama has also written and talked about using alcohol, marijuana and cocaine during his teenage years to "push questions of who I was out of my mind."At the 2008 Civil Forum on the Presidency, Obama identified his high-school drug use as a great moral failure.
Following high school, Obama moved to Los Angeles in 1979 to attend Occidental College.In February 1981, he made his first public speech, calling for Occidental's disinvestment from South Africa due to its policy of apartheid. In mid-1981, Obama traveled to Indonesia to visit his mother and sister Maya, and visited the families of college friends in India and Pakistan for three weeks.
Later in 1981 he transferred to Columbia University in New York City, where he majored in political science with a specialty in international relations[22] and graduated with a B.A. in 1983. He worked for a year at the Business International Corporation,then at the New York Public Interest Research Group.
Chicago community organizer and Harvard Law School
Two years after graduating, Obama was hired in Chicago as director of the Developing Communities Project (DCP), a church-based community organization originally comprising eight Catholic parishes in Greater Roseland (Roseland, West Pullman and Riverdale) on Chicago's far South Side. He worked there as a community organizer from June 1985 to May 1988. During his three years as the DCP's director, its staff grew from one to thirteen. He helped set up a job training program, a college preparatory tutoring program, and a tenants' rights organization in Altgeld Gardens. Obama also worked as a consultant and instructor for the Gamaliel Foundation, a community organizing institute. In mid-1988, he traveled for the first time in Europe for three weeks and then for five weeks in Kenya, where he met many of his paternal relatives for the first time.He returned in August 2006 for a visit to his father's birthplace, a village near Kisumu in rural western Kenya.
In late 1988, Obama entered Harvard Law School. He was selected as an editor of the Harvard Law Review at the end of his first year,[31] and president of the journal in his second year.During his summers, he returned to Chicago, where he worked as a summer associate at the law firms of Sidley Austin in 1989 and Hopkins & Sutter in 1990. After graduating with a Juris Doctor (J.D.) magna cum laude from Harvard in 1991, he returned to Chicago. Obama's election as the first black president of the Harvard Law Review gained national media attention and led to a publishing contract and advance for a book about race relations, which evolved into a personal memoir. The manuscript was published in mid-1995 as Dreams from My Father.
University of Chicago Law School and civil rights attorney
In 1991, Obama accepted a two-year position as Visiting Law and Government Fellow at the University of Chicago Law School to work on his first book.[35][36] He then served as a professor at the University of Chicago Law School for twelve years—as a Lecturer from 1992 to 1996, and as a Senior Lecturer from 1996 to 2004—teaching constitutional law.
From April to October 1992, Obama directed Illinois's Project Vote, a voter registration drive with ten staffers and seven hundred volunteer registrars; it achieved its goal of registering 150,000 of 400,000 unregistered African Americans in the state, and led to Crain's Chicago Business naming Obama to its 1993 list of "40 under Forty" powers to be. In 1993 he joined Davis, Miner, Barnhill & Galland, a 13-attorney law firm specializing in civil rights litigation and neighborhood economic development, where he was an associate for three years from 1993 to 1996, then of counsel from 1996 to 2004, with his law license becoming inactive in 2002.
From 1994 to 2002, Obama served on the boards of directors of the Woods Fund of Chicago, which in 1985 had been the first foundation to fund the Developing Communities Project, and of the Joyce Foundation.He served on the board of directors of the Chicago Annenberg Challenge from 1995 to 2002, as founding president and chairman of the board of directors from 1995 to 1999.
Legislative career: 1997–2008
State Senator: 1997–2004
Main article: Illinois Senate career of Barack Obama
Obama was elected to the Illinois Senate in 1996, succeeding State Senator Alice Palmer as Senator from Illinois's 13th District, which at that time spanned Chicago South Side neighborhoods from Hyde Park – Kenwood south to South Shore and west to Chicago Lawn. Once elected, Obama gained bipartisan support for legislation reforming ethics and health care laws. He sponsored a law increasing tax credits for low-income workers, negotiated welfare reform, and promoted increased subsidies for childcar.In 2001, as co-chairman of the bipartisan Joint Committee on Administrative Rules, Obama supported Republican Governor Ryan's payday loan regulations and predatory mortgage lending regulations aimed at averting home foreclosures.
Obama was reelected to the Illinois Senate in 1998, defeating Republican Yesse Yehudah in the general election, and was reelected again in 2002.[44] In 2000, he lost a Democratic primary run for the U.S. House of Representatives to four-term incumbent Bobby Rush by a margin of two to one.
In January 2003, Obama became chairman of the Illinois Senate's Health and Human Services Committee when Democrats, after a decade in the minority, regained a majority.[46] He sponsored and led unanimous, bipartisan passage of legislation to monitor racial profiling by requiring police to record the race of drivers they detained, and legislation making Illinois the first state to mandate videotaping of homicide interrogations. During his 2004 general election campaign for U.S. Senate, police representatives credited Obama for his active engagement with police organizations in enacting death penalty reforms.[48 Obama resigned from the Illinois Senate in November 2004 following his election to the U.S. Senate.
See also: United States Senate election in Illinois, 2004
In May 2002, Obama commissioned a poll to assess his prospects in a 2004 U.S. Senate race; he created a campaign committee, began raising funds and lined up political media consultant David Axelrod by August 2002, and formally announced his candidacy in January 2003.
Obama was an early opponent of the George W. Bush administration's 2003 invasion of Iraq. On October 2, 2002, the day President Bush and Congress agreed on the joint resolution authorizing the Iraq War, Obama addressed the first high-profile Chicago anti-Iraq War rally, and spoke out against the war.[54] He addressed another anti-war rally in March 2003 and told the crowd that "it's not too late" to stop the war.
County results of the 2004 US Senate race in Illinois. Counties in blue on map were won by Obama.
Decisions by Republican incumbent Peter Fitzgerald and his Democratic predecessor Carol Moseley Braun to not participate in the election resulted in wide-open Democratic and Republican primary contests involving fifteen candidates.[56] In the March 2004 primary election, Obama won in an unexpected landslide—which overnight made him a rising star within the national Democratic Party, started speculation about a presidential future, and led to the reissue of his memoir, Dreams from My Father.
In July 2004, Obama delivered the keynote address at the 2004 Democratic National Convention in Boston, Massachusetts, and it was seen by 9.1 million viewers. His speech was well received and elevated his status within the Democratic Party.
Obama's expected opponent in the general election, Republican primary winner Jack Ryan, withdrew from the race in June 2004.Six weeks later, Alan Keyes accepted the Illinois Republican Party's nomination to replace Ryan. In the November 2004 general election, Obama won with 70% of the vote.
U.S. Senator: 2005–2008
Main article: United States Senate career of Barack Obama
Obama delivering a speech at the University of Southern California, on October 28, 2006.
Obama was sworn in as a senator on January 4, 2005, becoming the only Senate member of the Congressional Black Caucus. CQ Weekly characterized him as a "loyal Democrat" based on analysis of all Senate votes in 2005–2007. Obama announced on November 13, 2008, that he would resign his Senate seat on November 16, 2008, before the start of the lame-duck session, to focus on his transition period for the presidency.
Legislation
See also: List of bills sponsored by Barack Obama in the United States Senate
A man with glasses and Obama sit and hold a sheet of paper. Obama points at the paper and talks. Both men wear dark suits and ties.
Senate bill sponsors Tom Coburn (R-OK) and Obama discussing the Federal Funding Accountability and Transparency Act
Obama cosponsored the Secure America and Orderly Immigration Act. He introduced two initiatives bearing his name: Lugar–Obama, which expanded the Nunn–Lugar cooperative threat reduction concept to conventional weapons, and the Federal Funding Accountability and Transparency Act of 2006, which authorized the establishment of USAspending.gov, a web search engine on federal spending.On June 3, 2008, Senator Obama, along with Senators Tom Carper, Tom Coburn, and John McCain, introduced follow-up legislation: Strengthening Transparency and Accountability in Federal Spending Act of 2008.
Obama sponsored legislation that would have required nuclear plant owners to notify state and local authorities of radioactive leaks, but the bill failed to pass in the full Senate after being heavily modified in committee. Regarding tort reform, Obama voted for the Class Action Fairness Act of 2005 and the FISA Amendments Act of 2008, which grants immunity from civil liability to telecommunications companies complicit with NSA warrantless wiretapping operations.
Gray-haired man and Obama stand, wearing casual polo shirts. Obama wears sunglasses and holds something slung over his right sholder.
Obama and U.S. Sen. Richard Lugar (R-IN) visit a Russian mobile launch missile dismantling facility in August 2005.
In December 2006, President Bush signed into law the Democratic Republic of the Congo Relief, Security, and Democracy Promotion Act, marking the first federal legislation to be enacted with Obama as its primary sponsor. In January 2007, Obama and Senator Feingold introduced a corporate jet provision to the Honest Leadership and Open Government Act, which was signed into law in September 2007. Obama also introduced Deceptive Practices and Voter Intimidation Prevention Act, a bill to criminalize deceptive practices in federal elections, and the Iraq War De-Escalation Act of 2007 neither of which has been signed into law.
Later in 2007, Obama sponsored an amendment to the Defense Authorization Act adding safeguards for personality disorder military discharges. This amendment passed the full Senate in the spring of 2008. He sponsored the Iran Sanctions Enabling Act supporting divestment of state pension funds from Iran's oil and gas industry, which has not passed committee, and co-sponsored legislation to reduce risks of nuclear terrorism. Obama also sponsored a Senate amendment to the State Children's Health Insurance Program providing one year of job protection for family members caring for soldiers with combat-related injuries.
Committees
Obama held assignments on the Senate Committees for Foreign Relations, Environment and Public Works and Veterans' Affairs through December 2006.[82] In January 2007, he left the Environment and Public Works committee and took additional assignments with Health, Education, Labor and Pensions and Homeland Security and Governmental Affairs.He also became Chairman of the Senate's subcommittee on European Affairs. As a member of the Senate Foreign Relations Committee, Obama made official trips to Eastern Europe, the Middle East, Central Asia and Africa. He met with Mahmoud Abbas before Abbas became President of the Palestinian Authority, and gave a speech at the University of Nairobi condemning corruption within the Kenyan government.
Presidential campaigns
2008 presidential campaign
Main articles: United States presidential election, 2008, Barack Obama presidential primary campaign, 2008, and Barack Obama presidential campaign, 2008
Obama stands on stage with his family. They wave.
Obama stands on stage with his wife and two daughters just before announcing his presidential candidacy in Springfield, Illinois, Feb. 10, 2007.
On February 10, 2007, Obama announced his candidacy for President of the United States in front of the Old State Capitol building in Springfield, Illinois. The choice of the announcement site was viewed as symbolic because it was also where Abraham Lincoln delivered his historic "House Divided" speech in 1858. Obama emphasized the issues of rapidly ending the Iraq War, increasing energy independence, and providing universal health care, in a campaign that projected themes of "hope" and "change".
Obama delivers a speech at a podium while several flashbulbs light the background.
Obama delivers his presidential election victory speech in Chicago's Grant Park.
A large number of candidates entered the Democratic Party presidential primaries. The field narrowed to a duel between Obama and Senator Hillary Rodham Clinton after early contests, with the race remaining close throughout the primary process but with Obama gaining a steady lead in pledged delegates due to better long-range planning, superior fundraising, dominant organizing in caucus states, and better exploitation of delegate allocation rules.[92] Clinton ended her campaign and endorsed him on June 7, 2008.[93]
Obama announced on August 23 that he had selected Delaware Senator Joe Biden as his vice presidential running mate,a field speculated to include Senator Evan Bayh and Virginia Governor Tim Kaine.At the Democratic National Convention in Denver, Colorado, Hillary Clinton called for her delegates and supporters to endorse Obama, and she and Bill Clinton gave convention speeches in support of Obama.[96] Obama delivered his acceptance speech, not at the convention center where the Democratic National Convention was held, but at Invesco Field at Mile High to a crowd of over 75,000 and presented his policy goals; the speech was viewed by over 38 million people worldwide.
Obama meets with Bush in the Oval Office. Both sit at a distance in front of the presidential desk with their legs crossed and their backs on an angle toward the camera. They sit at right angles to each other.
President George W. Bush meets with President-Elect Obama in the Oval Office on November 10, 2008.
During both the primary process and the general election, Obama's campaign set numerous fundraising records, particularly in the quantity of small donations.[100] On June 19, 2008, Obama became the first major-party presidential candidate to turn down public financing in the general election since the system was created in 1976.
McCain was nominated as the Republican candidate and the two engaged in three presidential debates in September and October 2008.On November 4, Obama won the presidency with 365 electoral votes to 173 received by McCain.Obama won 52.9% of the popular vote to McCain's 45.7%. He became the first African American to be elected president.Obama delivered his victory speech before hundreds of thousands of supporters in Chicago's Grant Park.
A native of Honolulu, Hawaii, Obama is a graduate of Columbia University and Harvard Law School, where he was the president of the Harvard Law Review. He was a community organizer in Chicago before earning his law degree. He worked as a civil rights attorney in Chicago and taught constitutional law at the University of Chicago Law School from 1992 to 2004.
Obama served three terms representing the 13th district in the Illinois Senate from 1997 to 2004. Following an unsuccessful bid against the Democratic incumbent for a seat in the United States House of Representatives in 2000, he ran for United States Senate in 2004. Several events brought him to national attention during the campaign, including his victory in the March 2004 Democratic primary and his keynote address at the Democratic National Convention in July 2004. He won election to the U.S. Senate in Illinois in November 2004. His presidential campaign began in February 2007, and after a close campaign in the 2008 Democratic Party presidential primaries against Hillary Rodham Clinton, he won his party's nomination. In the 2008 presidential election, he defeated Republican nominee John McCain, and was inaugurated as president on January 20, 2009. In October 2009, Obama was named the 2009 Nobel Peace Prize laureate.
As president, Obama signed economic stimulus legislation in the form of the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act in February 2009 and the Tax Relief, Unemployment Insurance Reauthorization, and Job Creation Act of 2010 in December 2010. Other domestic policy initiatives include the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act, the Dodd–Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act and the Don't Ask, Don't Tell Repeal Act of 2010.
In foreign policy, Obama gradually withdrew combat troops from Iraq, increased troop levels in Afghanistan, signed the New START arms control treaty with Russia, and ordered enforcement of the United Nations-sanctioned no-fly zone over Libya in early 2011. On May 1, 2011, Obama announced that a small team of American military forces, acting on his direct order, had killed al-Qaeda leader Osama bin Laden in Pakistan.
In April 2011, Obama declared his intention to seek re-election in the 2012 presidential election.
Obama was born on August 4, 1961, at Kapiʻolani Maternity & Gynecological Hospital (now called Kapiʻolani Medical Center for Women and Children) in Honolulu, Hawaii, the first President to have been born in Hawaii. His mother, Stanley Ann Dunham, was born in Wichita, Kansas and was of mostly English descent.[7] His father, Barack Obama, Sr., was a Luo from Nyang'oma Kogelo, Nyanza Province, Kenya. Obama's parents met in 1960 in a Russian language class at the University of Hawaii at Mānoa, where his father was a foreign student on scholarship. The couple married on February 2, 1961, separated when Obama Sr. went to Harvard University on scholarship, and divorced in 1964.Obama Sr. remarried and returned to Kenya, visiting Barack in Hawaii only once, in 1971. He died in an automobile accident in 1982.
After her divorce, Dunham married Indonesian student Lolo Soetoro, who was attending college in Hawaii. When Suharto, a military leader in Soetoro's home country, came to power in 1967, all Indonesian students studying abroad were recalled, and the family moved to the Menteng neighborhood of Jakarta. From ages six to ten, Obama attended local schools in Jakarta, including Besuki Public School and St. Francis of Assisi School.
In 1971, Obama returned to Honolulu to live with his maternal grandparents, Madelyn and Stanley Armour Dunham, and attended Punahou School, a private college preparatory school, from the fifth grade until his graduation from high school in 1979. Obama's mother returned to Hawaii in 1972, remaining there until 1977 when she went back to Indonesia to work as an anthropological field worker. She finally returned to Hawaii in 1994 and lived there for one year, before dying of ovarian cancer.
A young boy possibly in his early teens, a younger girl (about age 5), a grown woman and an elderly man, sit on a lawn wearing contemporary circa-1970 attire. The adults wear sunglasses and the boy wears sandals.
Barack Obama and half-sister Maya Soetoro-Ng, with their mother Ann Dunham and grandfather Stanley Dunham, in Hawaii (early 1970s)
Of his early childhood, Obama recalled, "That my father looked nothing like the people around me—that he was black as pitch, my mother white as milk—barely registered in my mind."[16] He described his struggles as a young adult to reconcile social perceptions of his multiracial heritage. Reflecting later on his formative years in Honolulu, Obama wrote: "The opportunity that Hawaii offered—to experience a variety of cultures in a climate of mutual respect—became an integral part of my world view, and a basis for the values that I hold most dear." Obama has also written and talked about using alcohol, marijuana and cocaine during his teenage years to "push questions of who I was out of my mind."At the 2008 Civil Forum on the Presidency, Obama identified his high-school drug use as a great moral failure.
Following high school, Obama moved to Los Angeles in 1979 to attend Occidental College.In February 1981, he made his first public speech, calling for Occidental's disinvestment from South Africa due to its policy of apartheid. In mid-1981, Obama traveled to Indonesia to visit his mother and sister Maya, and visited the families of college friends in India and Pakistan for three weeks.
Later in 1981 he transferred to Columbia University in New York City, where he majored in political science with a specialty in international relations[22] and graduated with a B.A. in 1983. He worked for a year at the Business International Corporation,then at the New York Public Interest Research Group.
Chicago community organizer and Harvard Law School
Two years after graduating, Obama was hired in Chicago as director of the Developing Communities Project (DCP), a church-based community organization originally comprising eight Catholic parishes in Greater Roseland (Roseland, West Pullman and Riverdale) on Chicago's far South Side. He worked there as a community organizer from June 1985 to May 1988. During his three years as the DCP's director, its staff grew from one to thirteen. He helped set up a job training program, a college preparatory tutoring program, and a tenants' rights organization in Altgeld Gardens. Obama also worked as a consultant and instructor for the Gamaliel Foundation, a community organizing institute. In mid-1988, he traveled for the first time in Europe for three weeks and then for five weeks in Kenya, where he met many of his paternal relatives for the first time.He returned in August 2006 for a visit to his father's birthplace, a village near Kisumu in rural western Kenya.
In late 1988, Obama entered Harvard Law School. He was selected as an editor of the Harvard Law Review at the end of his first year,[31] and president of the journal in his second year.During his summers, he returned to Chicago, where he worked as a summer associate at the law firms of Sidley Austin in 1989 and Hopkins & Sutter in 1990. After graduating with a Juris Doctor (J.D.) magna cum laude from Harvard in 1991, he returned to Chicago. Obama's election as the first black president of the Harvard Law Review gained national media attention and led to a publishing contract and advance for a book about race relations, which evolved into a personal memoir. The manuscript was published in mid-1995 as Dreams from My Father.
University of Chicago Law School and civil rights attorney
In 1991, Obama accepted a two-year position as Visiting Law and Government Fellow at the University of Chicago Law School to work on his first book.[35][36] He then served as a professor at the University of Chicago Law School for twelve years—as a Lecturer from 1992 to 1996, and as a Senior Lecturer from 1996 to 2004—teaching constitutional law.
From April to October 1992, Obama directed Illinois's Project Vote, a voter registration drive with ten staffers and seven hundred volunteer registrars; it achieved its goal of registering 150,000 of 400,000 unregistered African Americans in the state, and led to Crain's Chicago Business naming Obama to its 1993 list of "40 under Forty" powers to be. In 1993 he joined Davis, Miner, Barnhill & Galland, a 13-attorney law firm specializing in civil rights litigation and neighborhood economic development, where he was an associate for three years from 1993 to 1996, then of counsel from 1996 to 2004, with his law license becoming inactive in 2002.
From 1994 to 2002, Obama served on the boards of directors of the Woods Fund of Chicago, which in 1985 had been the first foundation to fund the Developing Communities Project, and of the Joyce Foundation.He served on the board of directors of the Chicago Annenberg Challenge from 1995 to 2002, as founding president and chairman of the board of directors from 1995 to 1999.
Legislative career: 1997–2008
State Senator: 1997–2004
Main article: Illinois Senate career of Barack Obama
Obama was elected to the Illinois Senate in 1996, succeeding State Senator Alice Palmer as Senator from Illinois's 13th District, which at that time spanned Chicago South Side neighborhoods from Hyde Park – Kenwood south to South Shore and west to Chicago Lawn. Once elected, Obama gained bipartisan support for legislation reforming ethics and health care laws. He sponsored a law increasing tax credits for low-income workers, negotiated welfare reform, and promoted increased subsidies for childcar.In 2001, as co-chairman of the bipartisan Joint Committee on Administrative Rules, Obama supported Republican Governor Ryan's payday loan regulations and predatory mortgage lending regulations aimed at averting home foreclosures.
Obama was reelected to the Illinois Senate in 1998, defeating Republican Yesse Yehudah in the general election, and was reelected again in 2002.[44] In 2000, he lost a Democratic primary run for the U.S. House of Representatives to four-term incumbent Bobby Rush by a margin of two to one.
In January 2003, Obama became chairman of the Illinois Senate's Health and Human Services Committee when Democrats, after a decade in the minority, regained a majority.[46] He sponsored and led unanimous, bipartisan passage of legislation to monitor racial profiling by requiring police to record the race of drivers they detained, and legislation making Illinois the first state to mandate videotaping of homicide interrogations. During his 2004 general election campaign for U.S. Senate, police representatives credited Obama for his active engagement with police organizations in enacting death penalty reforms.[48 Obama resigned from the Illinois Senate in November 2004 following his election to the U.S. Senate.
See also: United States Senate election in Illinois, 2004
In May 2002, Obama commissioned a poll to assess his prospects in a 2004 U.S. Senate race; he created a campaign committee, began raising funds and lined up political media consultant David Axelrod by August 2002, and formally announced his candidacy in January 2003.
Obama was an early opponent of the George W. Bush administration's 2003 invasion of Iraq. On October 2, 2002, the day President Bush and Congress agreed on the joint resolution authorizing the Iraq War, Obama addressed the first high-profile Chicago anti-Iraq War rally, and spoke out against the war.[54] He addressed another anti-war rally in March 2003 and told the crowd that "it's not too late" to stop the war.
County results of the 2004 US Senate race in Illinois. Counties in blue on map were won by Obama.
Decisions by Republican incumbent Peter Fitzgerald and his Democratic predecessor Carol Moseley Braun to not participate in the election resulted in wide-open Democratic and Republican primary contests involving fifteen candidates.[56] In the March 2004 primary election, Obama won in an unexpected landslide—which overnight made him a rising star within the national Democratic Party, started speculation about a presidential future, and led to the reissue of his memoir, Dreams from My Father.
In July 2004, Obama delivered the keynote address at the 2004 Democratic National Convention in Boston, Massachusetts, and it was seen by 9.1 million viewers. His speech was well received and elevated his status within the Democratic Party.
Obama's expected opponent in the general election, Republican primary winner Jack Ryan, withdrew from the race in June 2004.Six weeks later, Alan Keyes accepted the Illinois Republican Party's nomination to replace Ryan. In the November 2004 general election, Obama won with 70% of the vote.
U.S. Senator: 2005–2008
Main article: United States Senate career of Barack Obama
Obama delivering a speech at the University of Southern California, on October 28, 2006.
Obama was sworn in as a senator on January 4, 2005, becoming the only Senate member of the Congressional Black Caucus. CQ Weekly characterized him as a "loyal Democrat" based on analysis of all Senate votes in 2005–2007. Obama announced on November 13, 2008, that he would resign his Senate seat on November 16, 2008, before the start of the lame-duck session, to focus on his transition period for the presidency.
Legislation
See also: List of bills sponsored by Barack Obama in the United States Senate
A man with glasses and Obama sit and hold a sheet of paper. Obama points at the paper and talks. Both men wear dark suits and ties.
Senate bill sponsors Tom Coburn (R-OK) and Obama discussing the Federal Funding Accountability and Transparency Act
Obama cosponsored the Secure America and Orderly Immigration Act. He introduced two initiatives bearing his name: Lugar–Obama, which expanded the Nunn–Lugar cooperative threat reduction concept to conventional weapons, and the Federal Funding Accountability and Transparency Act of 2006, which authorized the establishment of USAspending.gov, a web search engine on federal spending.On June 3, 2008, Senator Obama, along with Senators Tom Carper, Tom Coburn, and John McCain, introduced follow-up legislation: Strengthening Transparency and Accountability in Federal Spending Act of 2008.
Obama sponsored legislation that would have required nuclear plant owners to notify state and local authorities of radioactive leaks, but the bill failed to pass in the full Senate after being heavily modified in committee. Regarding tort reform, Obama voted for the Class Action Fairness Act of 2005 and the FISA Amendments Act of 2008, which grants immunity from civil liability to telecommunications companies complicit with NSA warrantless wiretapping operations.
Gray-haired man and Obama stand, wearing casual polo shirts. Obama wears sunglasses and holds something slung over his right sholder.
Obama and U.S. Sen. Richard Lugar (R-IN) visit a Russian mobile launch missile dismantling facility in August 2005.
In December 2006, President Bush signed into law the Democratic Republic of the Congo Relief, Security, and Democracy Promotion Act, marking the first federal legislation to be enacted with Obama as its primary sponsor. In January 2007, Obama and Senator Feingold introduced a corporate jet provision to the Honest Leadership and Open Government Act, which was signed into law in September 2007. Obama also introduced Deceptive Practices and Voter Intimidation Prevention Act, a bill to criminalize deceptive practices in federal elections, and the Iraq War De-Escalation Act of 2007 neither of which has been signed into law.
Later in 2007, Obama sponsored an amendment to the Defense Authorization Act adding safeguards for personality disorder military discharges. This amendment passed the full Senate in the spring of 2008. He sponsored the Iran Sanctions Enabling Act supporting divestment of state pension funds from Iran's oil and gas industry, which has not passed committee, and co-sponsored legislation to reduce risks of nuclear terrorism. Obama also sponsored a Senate amendment to the State Children's Health Insurance Program providing one year of job protection for family members caring for soldiers with combat-related injuries.
Committees
Obama held assignments on the Senate Committees for Foreign Relations, Environment and Public Works and Veterans' Affairs through December 2006.[82] In January 2007, he left the Environment and Public Works committee and took additional assignments with Health, Education, Labor and Pensions and Homeland Security and Governmental Affairs.He also became Chairman of the Senate's subcommittee on European Affairs. As a member of the Senate Foreign Relations Committee, Obama made official trips to Eastern Europe, the Middle East, Central Asia and Africa. He met with Mahmoud Abbas before Abbas became President of the Palestinian Authority, and gave a speech at the University of Nairobi condemning corruption within the Kenyan government.
Presidential campaigns
2008 presidential campaign
Main articles: United States presidential election, 2008, Barack Obama presidential primary campaign, 2008, and Barack Obama presidential campaign, 2008
Obama stands on stage with his family. They wave.
Obama stands on stage with his wife and two daughters just before announcing his presidential candidacy in Springfield, Illinois, Feb. 10, 2007.
On February 10, 2007, Obama announced his candidacy for President of the United States in front of the Old State Capitol building in Springfield, Illinois. The choice of the announcement site was viewed as symbolic because it was also where Abraham Lincoln delivered his historic "House Divided" speech in 1858. Obama emphasized the issues of rapidly ending the Iraq War, increasing energy independence, and providing universal health care, in a campaign that projected themes of "hope" and "change".
Obama delivers a speech at a podium while several flashbulbs light the background.
Obama delivers his presidential election victory speech in Chicago's Grant Park.
A large number of candidates entered the Democratic Party presidential primaries. The field narrowed to a duel between Obama and Senator Hillary Rodham Clinton after early contests, with the race remaining close throughout the primary process but with Obama gaining a steady lead in pledged delegates due to better long-range planning, superior fundraising, dominant organizing in caucus states, and better exploitation of delegate allocation rules.[92] Clinton ended her campaign and endorsed him on June 7, 2008.[93]
Obama announced on August 23 that he had selected Delaware Senator Joe Biden as his vice presidential running mate,a field speculated to include Senator Evan Bayh and Virginia Governor Tim Kaine.At the Democratic National Convention in Denver, Colorado, Hillary Clinton called for her delegates and supporters to endorse Obama, and she and Bill Clinton gave convention speeches in support of Obama.[96] Obama delivered his acceptance speech, not at the convention center where the Democratic National Convention was held, but at Invesco Field at Mile High to a crowd of over 75,000 and presented his policy goals; the speech was viewed by over 38 million people worldwide.
Obama meets with Bush in the Oval Office. Both sit at a distance in front of the presidential desk with their legs crossed and their backs on an angle toward the camera. They sit at right angles to each other.
President George W. Bush meets with President-Elect Obama in the Oval Office on November 10, 2008.
During both the primary process and the general election, Obama's campaign set numerous fundraising records, particularly in the quantity of small donations.[100] On June 19, 2008, Obama became the first major-party presidential candidate to turn down public financing in the general election since the system was created in 1976.
McCain was nominated as the Republican candidate and the two engaged in three presidential debates in September and October 2008.On November 4, Obama won the presidency with 365 electoral votes to 173 received by McCain.Obama won 52.9% of the popular vote to McCain's 45.7%. He became the first African American to be elected president.Obama delivered his victory speech before hundreds of thousands of supporters in Chicago's Grant Park.
ice circle
An ice disc, ice circle, or ice pan is a natural phenomenon that occurs in slow moving water in cold climates. Ice circles are thin and circular slabs of ice that rotate slowly in the water. It is believed that they form in eddy currents. Ice discs have most frequently been observed in Scandinavia and North America, but they are occasionally recorded as far south as England and Wales. An ice disc was observed in Wales in December 2008 and another was reported in England in January 2009.
Ice circles vary in size but have been reported to be more than 4 metres (13 ft) in diameter.
Ice discs
Ice discs form on the outer bends in a river where the accelerating water creates a force called 'rotational shear', which breaks off a chunk of ice and twists it around.[5] As the disc rotates, it grinds against surrounding ice — smoothing into a circle.[2] A relatively uncommon phenomenon, one of the earliest recordings is of a slowly revolving disc was spotted on the Mianus River and reported in a 1895 edition of Scientific American.[6][7]
A collection of small ice pans (the largest about 12" (30 cm) in diameter) was observed on the River Llugwy at Betws-y-coed, North Wales in December 2008. A fortnight of no rain had resulted in low water levels, and there had been sub-zero temperatures for a week.
Ice pans
River specialist and geography professor Joe Desloges states that ice pans are "surface slabs of ice that form in the center of a lake or creek, instead of along the water’s edge. As water cools, it releases heat that turns into frazil ice" that can cluster together into a pan-shaped formation.[8] If an ice pan accumulates enough frazil ice and the current remains slow, the pan may transform into a 'hanging dam', a heavy block of ice with high ridges low centre.[9]
References
1. ^ "Ice disc brings touch of Scandinavia to Devon river". Times Online (The Times). 14 January 2009. http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/weather/article5511931.ece. Retrieved 22 April 2010.
2. ^ a b c David Derbyshire (13 January 2009). "Ice one! Walker discovers 10ft-wide, spinning frozen circle in British waters for the first time". Mail Online (Daily Mail). http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-1114071/Ice-Walker-discovers-10ft-wide-spinning-frozen-circle-British-waters-time.html. Retrieved 2009-01-13.
3. ^ "Spinning ice disc phenomenon seen in British river for first time". Telegraph.co.uk (Telegraph Media Group Limited). 13 January 2009. http://www.telegraph.co.uk/earth/4227030/Spinning-ice-disc-phenomenon-seen-in-British-river-for-first-time.html. Retrieved 22 April 2010.
4. ^ "Ice Circle 2005 - Kongsberg - December 18th 2005". Ice & Snow Circles in Norway: 6. Norwegian Crop Circle Group. http://galactic.no-ip.com:81/english/Is_og_sno-sirkler.htm. Retrieved 29 October 2010.
5. ^ Patrick Garrity (February 7, 2010). "VIDEO: Moscow Ice Disk a rarity of nature". http://www.burlingtonfreepress.com/article/20100207/MULTIMEDIA/100207016/-1/multimedia/VIDEO-Moscow-Ice-Disk-a-rarity-of-nature. Retrieved 19 February 2010.
6. ^ Scientific American, February 1895.
7. ^ Rickard, B et al: Unexplained Phenomena, page 190. Rough Guides, 2000.
8. ^ Joe Desloges. "Perfect "Ice Circle" Forms near Toronto, Canada". http://www.neowin.net/forum/index.php?s=4747fd3679bd6a0a01d32673bb95197f&showtopic=718912&pid=590397974&st=0&#entry590397974. Retrieved 14 January 2009. cited in: Scroggins, Kate; Roberts, Rob (18 December 2008). "Man stumbles on round, spinning ‘creek circle’". Posted Toronto (National Post). http://network.nationalpost.com/np/blogs/toronto/archive/2008/12/18/man-stumbles-on-round-spinning-creek-circle.aspx.
9. ^ Joe Desloges. "Perfect "Ice Circle" Forms near Toronto, Canada". http://www.neowin.net/forum/index.php?s=4747fd3679bd6a0a01d32673bb95197f&showtopic=718912&pid=590397974&st=0&#entry590397974. Retrieved 14 January 2009.
External links
* Weston, Tim (7 February 2010). "Ice disk photograph". Burlington Free Press. http://www.burlingtonfreepress.com/apps/pbcs.dll/section?template=detail&Site=BT&Date=20100207&Category=MULTIMEDIA&ArtNo=100207016&Ref=AR. Retrieved 18 January 2011.
* Theories abound on how the river got those patterns - MIT News
* "Weird or What?: Ice Circles". Weird or What. Discovery Channel. 14 September 2010. Retrieved on 19 January 2011.
* Video of ice disc in Germany: "Eisscheibe beim Kunsthof Pösling (Ice disc in Kunsthof, Pösling)". YouTube. 18 January 2009. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WB_k_p57MeQ. Retrieved 27 April 2010. (German)
* "Ice Circles at Zena Elementary School". Kingston City Schools District. 2010. http://www.kingstoncityschools.org/1011news-ice-circles.php. Retrieved 18 January 2011.
Stub icon This fluid dynamics-related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.v · d · e
Stub icon This climatology/meteorology-related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.
Ice circles vary in size but have been reported to be more than 4 metres (13 ft) in diameter.
Ice discs
Ice discs form on the outer bends in a river where the accelerating water creates a force called 'rotational shear', which breaks off a chunk of ice and twists it around.[5] As the disc rotates, it grinds against surrounding ice — smoothing into a circle.[2] A relatively uncommon phenomenon, one of the earliest recordings is of a slowly revolving disc was spotted on the Mianus River and reported in a 1895 edition of Scientific American.[6][7]
A collection of small ice pans (the largest about 12" (30 cm) in diameter) was observed on the River Llugwy at Betws-y-coed, North Wales in December 2008. A fortnight of no rain had resulted in low water levels, and there had been sub-zero temperatures for a week.
Ice pans
River specialist and geography professor Joe Desloges states that ice pans are "surface slabs of ice that form in the center of a lake or creek, instead of along the water’s edge. As water cools, it releases heat that turns into frazil ice" that can cluster together into a pan-shaped formation.[8] If an ice pan accumulates enough frazil ice and the current remains slow, the pan may transform into a 'hanging dam', a heavy block of ice with high ridges low centre.[9]
References
1. ^ "Ice disc brings touch of Scandinavia to Devon river". Times Online (The Times). 14 January 2009. http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/weather/article5511931.ece. Retrieved 22 April 2010.
2. ^ a b c David Derbyshire (13 January 2009). "Ice one! Walker discovers 10ft-wide, spinning frozen circle in British waters for the first time". Mail Online (Daily Mail). http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-1114071/Ice-Walker-discovers-10ft-wide-spinning-frozen-circle-British-waters-time.html. Retrieved 2009-01-13.
3. ^ "Spinning ice disc phenomenon seen in British river for first time". Telegraph.co.uk (Telegraph Media Group Limited). 13 January 2009. http://www.telegraph.co.uk/earth/4227030/Spinning-ice-disc-phenomenon-seen-in-British-river-for-first-time.html. Retrieved 22 April 2010.
4. ^ "Ice Circle 2005 - Kongsberg - December 18th 2005". Ice & Snow Circles in Norway: 6. Norwegian Crop Circle Group. http://galactic.no-ip.com:81/english/Is_og_sno-sirkler.htm. Retrieved 29 October 2010.
5. ^ Patrick Garrity (February 7, 2010). "VIDEO: Moscow Ice Disk a rarity of nature". http://www.burlingtonfreepress.com/article/20100207/MULTIMEDIA/100207016/-1/multimedia/VIDEO-Moscow-Ice-Disk-a-rarity-of-nature. Retrieved 19 February 2010.
6. ^ Scientific American, February 1895.
7. ^ Rickard, B et al: Unexplained Phenomena, page 190. Rough Guides, 2000.
8. ^ Joe Desloges. "Perfect "Ice Circle" Forms near Toronto, Canada". http://www.neowin.net/forum/index.php?s=4747fd3679bd6a0a01d32673bb95197f&showtopic=718912&pid=590397974&st=0&#entry590397974. Retrieved 14 January 2009. cited in: Scroggins, Kate; Roberts, Rob (18 December 2008). "Man stumbles on round, spinning ‘creek circle’". Posted Toronto (National Post). http://network.nationalpost.com/np/blogs/toronto/archive/2008/12/18/man-stumbles-on-round-spinning-creek-circle.aspx.
9. ^ Joe Desloges. "Perfect "Ice Circle" Forms near Toronto, Canada". http://www.neowin.net/forum/index.php?s=4747fd3679bd6a0a01d32673bb95197f&showtopic=718912&pid=590397974&st=0&#entry590397974. Retrieved 14 January 2009.
External links
* Weston, Tim (7 February 2010). "Ice disk photograph". Burlington Free Press. http://www.burlingtonfreepress.com/apps/pbcs.dll/section?template=detail&Site=BT&Date=20100207&Category=MULTIMEDIA&ArtNo=100207016&Ref=AR. Retrieved 18 January 2011.
* Theories abound on how the river got those patterns - MIT News
* "Weird or What?: Ice Circles". Weird or What. Discovery Channel. 14 September 2010. Retrieved on 19 January 2011.
* Video of ice disc in Germany: "Eisscheibe beim Kunsthof Pösling (Ice disc in Kunsthof, Pösling)". YouTube. 18 January 2009. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WB_k_p57MeQ. Retrieved 27 April 2010. (German)
* "Ice Circles at Zena Elementary School". Kingston City Schools District. 2010. http://www.kingstoncityschools.org/1011news-ice-circles.php. Retrieved 18 January 2011.
Stub icon This fluid dynamics-related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.v · d · e
Stub icon This climatology/meteorology-related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.
Rabu, 08 Juni 2011
ronaldo
Ronaldo Luís Nazário de Lima (lahir di Bento Ribeiro, Brasil, 22 September 1976; umur 34 tahun; umumnya dipanggil Ronaldo saja) adalah seorang pemain sepak bola Brasil yang sangat terkenal. Ia biasanya bermain sebagai penyerang dan saat ini bermain bagi klub Corinthians. Julukannya adalah Il Fenômeno ("Sang Fenomena").
Kelahiran
Separti kebanyakan pemain sepak bola Brasil, Ronaldo lahir dalam kemiskinan. Ia besar di Bento Ribeiro dan bermain sepak bola di jalanan kumuh di sekitar rumahnya. Ia bahkan tidak mampu membeli sepatu sepak bola agar bisa berlatih di klub pujaannya Flamengo. Namun bakatnya segera tercium oleh legenda Brasil, Jairzinho yang membawanya untuk bergabung dengan Cruzeiro.
Klub
Cruzeiro (1993)
Awal karier Ronaldo dimulai ketika ia bergabung dengan Cruzeiro pada tahun 1993. Pada musim pertama dan satu-satunya di Cruzeiro, ia mengemas 12 gol dari 14 penampilan dan memenangkan Copa do Brasil untuk pertama kalinya. Setahun setelah debut profesionalnya ia dipanggil masuk skuad timnas sepak bola Brasil untuk Piala Dunia 1994 meskipun ia akhirnya tidak mendapatkan kesempatan bermain.
PSV Eindhoven (1994-1996)
Piet de Visser yang merupakan pemandu bakat PSV Eindhoven menyarankan klub itu untuk menarik Ronaldo bergabung. Maka transfer sebesar $6 juta pun dilayangken kepada Cruzeiro ynag tak kuasa menahan bintangnya untuk hengkang. Maka bergabunglah Ronaldo dengan klub Belanda tersebut. Pada musim pertamanya Ronaldo keluar sebagai pencetak gol terbanyak Liga Belanda dengan 30 gol. Pada musim keduanya Ronaldo berkutat dengan cedera lutut kanan (cedera yang selalu menggerogoti kariernya), namun ia berhasil mencetak 12 gol dalam 13 penampilannya dalam pertandingan Liga. Ronaldo juga berhasil meraih trofi Piala Belanda bersama PSV pada tahun 1995.
FC Barcelona (1996/97)
Sir Bobby Robson yang merupakan manajer FC Barcelona saat itu memproyeksikan Alan Shearer sebagi target utama, sayangnya Blackburn Rovers tidak mengijinkan Shearer untuk pindah (walaupun akhirnya Newcastle United yang mendapatkannya). Maka target pun beralih kepada Ronaldo untuk memakai seragam no. 9 di Barça. PSV Eindhoven setuju untuk melepas Ronaldo dengan nilai transfer 12 juta poundsterling. Penampilan Il Fenômeno mencapai puncaknya di Barça dimana ia secara spektakuler mencetak 47 gol dalam 49 penampilan untuk semua ajang kompetisi bersama Barça. Pergerakan Ronaldo yang gesit dan kuat bahkan pernah memporak porandakan pertahanan klub Celta Vigo yang menjadi lawan Barça di liga, dimana ia mencetak sebuah gol solo run melewati hampir semua pemain Celta Vigo. Penampilan impresifnya pun diganjar dengan meraih gelar Pemain Terbaik Dunia versi FIFA 1996. Ia menjadi pemain termuda yang pernah meraihnya dalam usia 20 tahun. Bersama Barça Ronaldo meraih trofi Winner Cup, Piala Spanyol dan Piala Super Spanyol. Ronaldo juga menjadi pencetak gol terbanyak di Liga dengan 34 gol dari 37 penampilan. Akan tetapi dibalik kesuksesan Ronaldo, Barça justru menunda-nunda perpanjangan kontrak sang striker sehingga Ronaldo menjadi tidak bahagia, dan akhirnya mulai menyuarakan keinginan untuk pindah. Pada akhir musimnya bersama Barça klub-klub besar mulai mendekati Ronaldo, salah satunya adalah Inter Milan.
Internazionale Milan (1997-2002 )
Keadaan Ronaldo yang mulai tidak bahagia di klubnya dimanfaatkan oleh Inter Milan yang membeli kontrak Ronaldo sebesar 19 juta poundsterling. Ronaldo menjadi pemain termahal dunia pada saat itu. Pada musim pertamnya di Inter Il Fenômeno mengantarkan klub barunya meraih gelar UEFA Cup yang mana ia mencetak hat-trick pada final melawan Lazio. Pada tahun ini Ronaldo pun kembali meraih gelar Pemain Terbaik Dunia versi FIFA untuk kedua kalinya secara berturut turut. Pada musim pertamanya ia mencetak total 34 gol dalam 47 penampilan dalam semua ajang kompetisi. Ronaldo pun menjadi tumpuan Brasil untuk meraih gelar Piala Dunia 1998 di Prancis. Namun setelah cedera misterius di final melawan tuan rumah Prancis, penempilan Ronaldo menurun tajam. Hal ini berpengaruh pada performa Ronaldo di klub dimana ia hanya bisa tampil 19 kali dalam pertandingan liga. Walaupun begitu ia masih bisa mencetak 14 gol bagi Inter, dan menjadi runner-up Pemain Terbaik Dunia versi FIFA dibawah Zinedine Zidane yang mengalahkannya dalam partai final Piala Dunia 1998. Pada musim ketiganya Ronaldo kembali mengalami cedera parah ketika melawan Lecce dalam laga Seri A, dokter tim pun menyarankan Ronaldo untuk di operasi sehingga praktis musim itu pun berakhir secara tragis untuk Ronaldo. Ia hanya tampil dalam 7 pertandingan Seri A dan mencetak 3 gol. Pada tanggal 12 April 2000 Ronaldo melakukan pertandingan pertamanya setelah cedera tapi hanya mampu bertahan selama 7 menit dalam pertandinga Coppa Italia melawan Lazio. Lututnya kembali mengalami cedera sehingga ia pun absen sepanjang musim keempatnya bersama Inter. Setelah 2 operasi dan rehabilitasi yang memakan waktu 20 bulan. Ronaldo pun tampil kembali membela Inter dan mencetak 7 gol dalam 16 pertandingan dalam semua ajang kompetisi. Ia kemudian terpanggil dalam skuad Brasil untuk Piala Dunia 2002 di Jepang dan Korea, dimana ia secara luar biasa mengantar Brasil meraih gelar Piala Dunia yang kelima. Para fans Inter pun bersuka cita karena mereka mengharapkan Il Fenômeno akan kembali ke performa seperti dulu dan mengantarkan Inter meraih gelar Juara Seri A yang mereka idam-idamkan. Namun suatu proposal dari klub Real Madrid sebesar € 39 juta membuyarkan impian itu, Ronaldo memilih pindah ke Real Madrid yang sedang membangun timnya dengan mengumpulkan pemain-pemain terbaik dunia untuk bermain bagi El Real. Semasa di Inter total Ronaldo mencetak 59 gol dalam 99 penampilan.
Real Madrid (2002-2007)
Ronaldo berseragam Real Madrid
Masuknya Ronaldo menjadi bagian skuad Los Galacticos Real Madrid, membuat El Real meraih keuntungan denga laku kerasnya kostum bernomor 11 bertuliskan Ronaldo. Hal yang memang diharapkan oleh manajemen Real Madrid. Pada musim pertamanya Ronaldo baru dapat tampil pertama kalinya membela El Real pada bulan Oktober 2002 karena cedera. Pada pertandingan debutnya Il Fenomeno mencetak 2 gol untuk kemenangan Real Madrid. Selama musim pertamanya ia mencetak 23 gol dalam 31 pertandingan, dan meraih gelar Liga pertamanya bersama klub dimana ia gagal meraihnya saat bersama Barcelona. Selain itu ia juga meraih gelar Piala Interkontinental dan Piala Super Spanyol. Pada musim keduanya Ronaldo,yang telah mengganti seragam no. 11 dengan no. 9, berhasil membawa Real Madrid melaju ke perempat final dalam kompetisi Liga Champion dimana Ronaldo mencetak hat-trick ketika melawan Manchester United di stadion Old Trafford. Namun pada akhir musim ia kembali menderita cedera sehingga El Real gagal mempertahankan juara Liga Spanyol dan tersingkir pada babak semifinal Liga Champions. Akan tetapi Il Fenômeno mampu meraih gelar top scorer dengan 24 golnya di ajang liga. Penampilan Ronaldo semakin menurun dikarenakan oleh kelebihan berat badan ditambah kedatangan beberapa pemain yang berposisi sama dengannya, Michael Owen, Antonio Cassano dan Ruud van Nistelrooy. Hubungannya dengan pelatih Real Madrid saat itu Fabio Capello pun memburuk. Bersama Real Madrid Ronaldo mencetak 177 gol dalam semua ajang kompetisi.
AC Milan (2007-2008)
Perseteruannya dengan manajer Fabio Capello makin menjadi-jadi, ditambah dengan memburuknya hubungan Ronaldo dengan kapten Real Madrid, Raul membuat Ronaldo makin terpinggirkan dalam skuad El Real. Pada bulan Januari 2007 Ronaldo hadir untuk menonton pertandingan antara AC Milan melawan AS Roma. Gosip yang beredar Ronaldo akan pindah ke AC Milan merebak luas. Hal yang makin memperuncing permusuhan antar AC Milan dan Inter Milan mengingat Ronaldo pernah membela Inter Milan. Pada 26 Januari 2007 Ronaldo pun resmi menjadi bagian skuad I rossonerri dengan nilai transfer €7.5 juta. Ia memilih seragam bernomor 99. Ia memulai debutnya sebagai pemain pengganti pada laga melawan Livorno dimana AC Milan menang 2-1. Il Fenômeno mencetak gol pertamanya untuk AC Milan saat melawan Siena. Ia mencetak 2 gol dan memberi 1 assist unutk kemenangan AC Milan 4-3. Pada musim pertamnya Ronaldo tampil 14 kali dengan mencetak 7 gol. Musim keduanya meski dihiasi berbagai cedera, Ronaldo berhasil mencetak 9 gol dalam 20 penampilannya. Pada tanggal 13 Februari 2008, Il Fenômeno kembali menderita cedera parah di lutut kirinya ketika ia melompat untuk menyambut umpan silang saat Milan seri 1-1 melawan Livorno. Cederanya lutut kirinya membuat Ronaldo mengalami cedera lutut yang parah pada kedua kakinya. Hal ini yang membuat AC Milan tidak memperpanjang kontrak Ronaldo ketika musim berakhir. Ronaldo dilepas dengan status bebas trsnsfer.
Corinthians (2009-14 Pebruari 2011)
Dalam upaya menyembuhkan cedera lutut kanannya, Ronaldo akhirnya berkesempatan untuk bergabung dengan klub idolanya semasa kecil, Flamengo. Akan tetapi Ronaldo pada detik-detik akhir memilih bergabung dengan rival Flamengo, Corinthians pada 9 Desember 2009 yang memancing amarah fans Flamengo. Pertandingan debut Ronaldo adalah pada tanggal 4 Maret 2009 melawan Itumbria pada ajang Copa do Brasil. 4 hari kemudian ia mencetak gol pertamanya untuk Corinthians ketika melawan Palmeiras pada ajang Liga Paulista. Il Fenômeno membawa Corinthians memenangkan Liga Paulista dengan mencetak 10 gol dalam 14 pertandingan. Pada Februari 2010 ia menandatangani perpanjangan kontrak bersama Corinthians sampai akhir 2011 dan berencana untuk pensiun sebagai pesepak bola, tapi fisik berkata lain, akhir Sang Fenomena tidak sanggup menahan cedera yang terus menggerogotinya serta kegemukan dan pada akhirnya kata pensiun terucap pada tanggal 14 Pebruari 2011, Selamat Tinggal Sang Fenomena, Penerus anda di Timnas Brazil dan dunia mungkin ada seperti banyak Alexandre Pato (Penerus Sang Fenomena), Neymar (Titisan Pele), tapi belum ada yang mampu menandingi kelincahan, kegesitan, dribble bolanya maupun dalam penyelesaian akhirnya O Fenomena.
[sunting] Internasional
Piala Dunia 1994
Penampilan Ronaldo bersama Cruzeiro membawanya untuk bergabung dengan skuad Brasil untuk menghadapi ajang Piala Dunia 1994 di Amerika Serikat. Debut internasional pertamanya bersama Seleção adalah melawan Argentina di Recife. Ronaldo tidak tampil sekalipun dalam ajang Piala Dunia 1994 yang mana dimenangkan oleh Brasil lewat kontribusi duet striker Romario dan Bebeto. Adapun penampilan pertama Ronaldo dalam ajang resmi bersama Seleção adalah pada Olimpiade 1996 di Atlanta. Saat itu ia bermain dengan nama Ronaldinho di punggungnya dikarenakan ada rekan setimnya yang juga bernama Ronaldo Guiaro dan berusia 2 tahun lebih tua dari Ronaldo. Brasil meraih medali perunggu di Atalanta 1996.
Piala Dunia 1998
Karier Ronaldo yang terus meroket bersama FC Barcelona dan Inter Milan membuatnya difavoritkan untuk meraih gelar Piala Dunia nya yang pertama sebagai pemain utama. Ditambah dengan gelar Pemain Terbaik Dunia versi FIFA dalam 2 tahun berturut-turut membuat prediksi bahwa Seleção akan meraih gelar kelimanya di Prancis makin melambung. Selama turnamen, Ronaldo menunjukkan permainan impresif dengan mencetak 4 gol dan 3 assist. Berpasangan dengan Bebeto di lini depan, Ronaldo membawa Brasil ke final Piala Dunia melawan tuan rumah Prancis di stadion Saint Denis. Namun 72 menit sebelum kick-off nama Ronaldo ditarik dari daftar starter melawan Prancis dengan alasan menderita epilepsi, hal yang mana masih menjadi misteri sampai saat ini. Ronaldo tetap tampil dalam final itu dan tidak bisa berbuat banyak dalam pertandingan sehingga Prancis memenangkan trofi Piala Dunia untuk pertama kalinya dengan keunggulan 3-0.
Piala Dunia 2002
Setelah sembuh dari cedera selama hampir 2 tahun, Seleção kembali memanggil Ronaldo, menyusul penampilannya yang makin membaik bersama Inter Milan. Pelatih Brasil, Mario Zagalo menjadikan Ronaldo bagian dari trio penyerang Seleção bersama dengan Rivaldo dan Ronaldinho. Penampilan impresif trio yang dijuluki 3 R berhasil membawa Brasil sekali lagi tampil di final dalam 3 Piala Dunia terakhir. Kali ini melawan Jerman yang mengandalkan kiper Oliver Kahn. Seleção kali ini meraih hasil maksimal dengan mengalahkan Jerman 2-0, kedua gol diborong oleh Il Fenômeno yang juga memastikan dirinya meraih penghargaan sebagai pencetak gol terbanyak dengan 8 gol. Ia juga menyamai rekor legenda Brasil, Pelé yang telah mencetak 12 gol selama tampil dalam ajang Piala Dunia.
Piala Dunia 2006
Ronaldo mengawali Piala Dunia 2006 dengan diselimuti kontroversi mengenai berat badannya yang tampak melebihi berat ideal. Ia dikritik karena kondisinya dianggap kurang fit serta penampilannya yang buruk. Meskipun begitu, pada pertandingan ketiga di babak pertama melawan Jepang, ia mencetak 2 gol yang membawanya sejajar dengan Gerd Müller sebagai pencetak gol terbanyak di Piala Dunia sepanjang sejarah dengan 14 gol. Satu gol yang dicetaknya saat melawan Ghana pada 27 Juni menjadikannya pencetak gol terbanyak sepanjang sejarah Piala Dunia dengan 15 gol. Seleção sendiri gagal mempertahankan gelar juara Piala Dunia, kalah 1-0 oleh Prancis dalam babak perempat final. Ini adalah penampilan terakhir Ronaldo bersama tim nasioanl Brasil dalam ajang resmi. Ia telah mencetak 62 gol dan tampil sebanyak 92 kali dengan seragam Seleçã.
Gaya Bermain
Di awal karirnya, Ronaldo adalah tipe striker murni dengan kemampuan sprint cepat yang menusuk pertahanan lawan sambil mendribel bola dan piawai dalam menyelesaikan umpan-umpan terobosan. Kedua kaki Ronaldo merupakan senjata utamanya untuk mencetak gol demi gol, sementara kepalanya jarang di gunakan untuk mencetak gol walaupun fisiknya cukup tinggi (183 cm). Ronaldo juga mempunyai keunggulan fisik yang memungkinkan ia berduel dengan bek lawan dan mampu menahan bola ketika menunggu bantuan rekan-rekan setimnya. Gaya ini terlihat jelas saat ia bermain untuk FC Barcelona dan pada musim pertamanya berkostum Inter Milan. Ketika ia bermain untuk Real Madrid ia sedikit mengubah gaya bermain dengan banyak mencari ruang kosong di antara bek dan melepaskan tendangan jarak jauh ke arah gawang. Hal ini lebih dikarenakan fisik Ronaldo yang sudah tidak memungkinkannya untuk tetap bermain dengan gaya naturalnya seperti ketika mengawali karier. Kelebihan berat badan dan cedera yang terus menimpanya merupakan alasan bagi Ronaldo untuk mengubah gaya bermainnya. Il Fenômeno juga merupakan pemain yang handal dalam menghadapi situasi bola mati, tercatat ia pernah menjadi penendang pinalti, tendangan bebas sampai tendangan penjuru. Ia juga pernah menyandang ban kapten ketika bermain membela Inter Milan dan dalam beberapa pertandingan bersama Seleção.
Kelahiran
Separti kebanyakan pemain sepak bola Brasil, Ronaldo lahir dalam kemiskinan. Ia besar di Bento Ribeiro dan bermain sepak bola di jalanan kumuh di sekitar rumahnya. Ia bahkan tidak mampu membeli sepatu sepak bola agar bisa berlatih di klub pujaannya Flamengo. Namun bakatnya segera tercium oleh legenda Brasil, Jairzinho yang membawanya untuk bergabung dengan Cruzeiro.
Klub
Cruzeiro (1993)
Awal karier Ronaldo dimulai ketika ia bergabung dengan Cruzeiro pada tahun 1993. Pada musim pertama dan satu-satunya di Cruzeiro, ia mengemas 12 gol dari 14 penampilan dan memenangkan Copa do Brasil untuk pertama kalinya. Setahun setelah debut profesionalnya ia dipanggil masuk skuad timnas sepak bola Brasil untuk Piala Dunia 1994 meskipun ia akhirnya tidak mendapatkan kesempatan bermain.
PSV Eindhoven (1994-1996)
Piet de Visser yang merupakan pemandu bakat PSV Eindhoven menyarankan klub itu untuk menarik Ronaldo bergabung. Maka transfer sebesar $6 juta pun dilayangken kepada Cruzeiro ynag tak kuasa menahan bintangnya untuk hengkang. Maka bergabunglah Ronaldo dengan klub Belanda tersebut. Pada musim pertamanya Ronaldo keluar sebagai pencetak gol terbanyak Liga Belanda dengan 30 gol. Pada musim keduanya Ronaldo berkutat dengan cedera lutut kanan (cedera yang selalu menggerogoti kariernya), namun ia berhasil mencetak 12 gol dalam 13 penampilannya dalam pertandingan Liga. Ronaldo juga berhasil meraih trofi Piala Belanda bersama PSV pada tahun 1995.
FC Barcelona (1996/97)
Sir Bobby Robson yang merupakan manajer FC Barcelona saat itu memproyeksikan Alan Shearer sebagi target utama, sayangnya Blackburn Rovers tidak mengijinkan Shearer untuk pindah (walaupun akhirnya Newcastle United yang mendapatkannya). Maka target pun beralih kepada Ronaldo untuk memakai seragam no. 9 di Barça. PSV Eindhoven setuju untuk melepas Ronaldo dengan nilai transfer 12 juta poundsterling. Penampilan Il Fenômeno mencapai puncaknya di Barça dimana ia secara spektakuler mencetak 47 gol dalam 49 penampilan untuk semua ajang kompetisi bersama Barça. Pergerakan Ronaldo yang gesit dan kuat bahkan pernah memporak porandakan pertahanan klub Celta Vigo yang menjadi lawan Barça di liga, dimana ia mencetak sebuah gol solo run melewati hampir semua pemain Celta Vigo. Penampilan impresifnya pun diganjar dengan meraih gelar Pemain Terbaik Dunia versi FIFA 1996. Ia menjadi pemain termuda yang pernah meraihnya dalam usia 20 tahun. Bersama Barça Ronaldo meraih trofi Winner Cup, Piala Spanyol dan Piala Super Spanyol. Ronaldo juga menjadi pencetak gol terbanyak di Liga dengan 34 gol dari 37 penampilan. Akan tetapi dibalik kesuksesan Ronaldo, Barça justru menunda-nunda perpanjangan kontrak sang striker sehingga Ronaldo menjadi tidak bahagia, dan akhirnya mulai menyuarakan keinginan untuk pindah. Pada akhir musimnya bersama Barça klub-klub besar mulai mendekati Ronaldo, salah satunya adalah Inter Milan.
Internazionale Milan (1997-2002 )
Keadaan Ronaldo yang mulai tidak bahagia di klubnya dimanfaatkan oleh Inter Milan yang membeli kontrak Ronaldo sebesar 19 juta poundsterling. Ronaldo menjadi pemain termahal dunia pada saat itu. Pada musim pertamnya di Inter Il Fenômeno mengantarkan klub barunya meraih gelar UEFA Cup yang mana ia mencetak hat-trick pada final melawan Lazio. Pada tahun ini Ronaldo pun kembali meraih gelar Pemain Terbaik Dunia versi FIFA untuk kedua kalinya secara berturut turut. Pada musim pertamanya ia mencetak total 34 gol dalam 47 penampilan dalam semua ajang kompetisi. Ronaldo pun menjadi tumpuan Brasil untuk meraih gelar Piala Dunia 1998 di Prancis. Namun setelah cedera misterius di final melawan tuan rumah Prancis, penempilan Ronaldo menurun tajam. Hal ini berpengaruh pada performa Ronaldo di klub dimana ia hanya bisa tampil 19 kali dalam pertandingan liga. Walaupun begitu ia masih bisa mencetak 14 gol bagi Inter, dan menjadi runner-up Pemain Terbaik Dunia versi FIFA dibawah Zinedine Zidane yang mengalahkannya dalam partai final Piala Dunia 1998. Pada musim ketiganya Ronaldo kembali mengalami cedera parah ketika melawan Lecce dalam laga Seri A, dokter tim pun menyarankan Ronaldo untuk di operasi sehingga praktis musim itu pun berakhir secara tragis untuk Ronaldo. Ia hanya tampil dalam 7 pertandingan Seri A dan mencetak 3 gol. Pada tanggal 12 April 2000 Ronaldo melakukan pertandingan pertamanya setelah cedera tapi hanya mampu bertahan selama 7 menit dalam pertandinga Coppa Italia melawan Lazio. Lututnya kembali mengalami cedera sehingga ia pun absen sepanjang musim keempatnya bersama Inter. Setelah 2 operasi dan rehabilitasi yang memakan waktu 20 bulan. Ronaldo pun tampil kembali membela Inter dan mencetak 7 gol dalam 16 pertandingan dalam semua ajang kompetisi. Ia kemudian terpanggil dalam skuad Brasil untuk Piala Dunia 2002 di Jepang dan Korea, dimana ia secara luar biasa mengantar Brasil meraih gelar Piala Dunia yang kelima. Para fans Inter pun bersuka cita karena mereka mengharapkan Il Fenômeno akan kembali ke performa seperti dulu dan mengantarkan Inter meraih gelar Juara Seri A yang mereka idam-idamkan. Namun suatu proposal dari klub Real Madrid sebesar € 39 juta membuyarkan impian itu, Ronaldo memilih pindah ke Real Madrid yang sedang membangun timnya dengan mengumpulkan pemain-pemain terbaik dunia untuk bermain bagi El Real. Semasa di Inter total Ronaldo mencetak 59 gol dalam 99 penampilan.
Real Madrid (2002-2007)
Ronaldo berseragam Real Madrid
Masuknya Ronaldo menjadi bagian skuad Los Galacticos Real Madrid, membuat El Real meraih keuntungan denga laku kerasnya kostum bernomor 11 bertuliskan Ronaldo. Hal yang memang diharapkan oleh manajemen Real Madrid. Pada musim pertamanya Ronaldo baru dapat tampil pertama kalinya membela El Real pada bulan Oktober 2002 karena cedera. Pada pertandingan debutnya Il Fenomeno mencetak 2 gol untuk kemenangan Real Madrid. Selama musim pertamanya ia mencetak 23 gol dalam 31 pertandingan, dan meraih gelar Liga pertamanya bersama klub dimana ia gagal meraihnya saat bersama Barcelona. Selain itu ia juga meraih gelar Piala Interkontinental dan Piala Super Spanyol. Pada musim keduanya Ronaldo,yang telah mengganti seragam no. 11 dengan no. 9, berhasil membawa Real Madrid melaju ke perempat final dalam kompetisi Liga Champion dimana Ronaldo mencetak hat-trick ketika melawan Manchester United di stadion Old Trafford. Namun pada akhir musim ia kembali menderita cedera sehingga El Real gagal mempertahankan juara Liga Spanyol dan tersingkir pada babak semifinal Liga Champions. Akan tetapi Il Fenômeno mampu meraih gelar top scorer dengan 24 golnya di ajang liga. Penampilan Ronaldo semakin menurun dikarenakan oleh kelebihan berat badan ditambah kedatangan beberapa pemain yang berposisi sama dengannya, Michael Owen, Antonio Cassano dan Ruud van Nistelrooy. Hubungannya dengan pelatih Real Madrid saat itu Fabio Capello pun memburuk. Bersama Real Madrid Ronaldo mencetak 177 gol dalam semua ajang kompetisi.
AC Milan (2007-2008)
Perseteruannya dengan manajer Fabio Capello makin menjadi-jadi, ditambah dengan memburuknya hubungan Ronaldo dengan kapten Real Madrid, Raul membuat Ronaldo makin terpinggirkan dalam skuad El Real. Pada bulan Januari 2007 Ronaldo hadir untuk menonton pertandingan antara AC Milan melawan AS Roma. Gosip yang beredar Ronaldo akan pindah ke AC Milan merebak luas. Hal yang makin memperuncing permusuhan antar AC Milan dan Inter Milan mengingat Ronaldo pernah membela Inter Milan. Pada 26 Januari 2007 Ronaldo pun resmi menjadi bagian skuad I rossonerri dengan nilai transfer €7.5 juta. Ia memilih seragam bernomor 99. Ia memulai debutnya sebagai pemain pengganti pada laga melawan Livorno dimana AC Milan menang 2-1. Il Fenômeno mencetak gol pertamanya untuk AC Milan saat melawan Siena. Ia mencetak 2 gol dan memberi 1 assist unutk kemenangan AC Milan 4-3. Pada musim pertamnya Ronaldo tampil 14 kali dengan mencetak 7 gol. Musim keduanya meski dihiasi berbagai cedera, Ronaldo berhasil mencetak 9 gol dalam 20 penampilannya. Pada tanggal 13 Februari 2008, Il Fenômeno kembali menderita cedera parah di lutut kirinya ketika ia melompat untuk menyambut umpan silang saat Milan seri 1-1 melawan Livorno. Cederanya lutut kirinya membuat Ronaldo mengalami cedera lutut yang parah pada kedua kakinya. Hal ini yang membuat AC Milan tidak memperpanjang kontrak Ronaldo ketika musim berakhir. Ronaldo dilepas dengan status bebas trsnsfer.
Corinthians (2009-14 Pebruari 2011)
Dalam upaya menyembuhkan cedera lutut kanannya, Ronaldo akhirnya berkesempatan untuk bergabung dengan klub idolanya semasa kecil, Flamengo. Akan tetapi Ronaldo pada detik-detik akhir memilih bergabung dengan rival Flamengo, Corinthians pada 9 Desember 2009 yang memancing amarah fans Flamengo. Pertandingan debut Ronaldo adalah pada tanggal 4 Maret 2009 melawan Itumbria pada ajang Copa do Brasil. 4 hari kemudian ia mencetak gol pertamanya untuk Corinthians ketika melawan Palmeiras pada ajang Liga Paulista. Il Fenômeno membawa Corinthians memenangkan Liga Paulista dengan mencetak 10 gol dalam 14 pertandingan. Pada Februari 2010 ia menandatangani perpanjangan kontrak bersama Corinthians sampai akhir 2011 dan berencana untuk pensiun sebagai pesepak bola, tapi fisik berkata lain, akhir Sang Fenomena tidak sanggup menahan cedera yang terus menggerogotinya serta kegemukan dan pada akhirnya kata pensiun terucap pada tanggal 14 Pebruari 2011, Selamat Tinggal Sang Fenomena, Penerus anda di Timnas Brazil dan dunia mungkin ada seperti banyak Alexandre Pato (Penerus Sang Fenomena), Neymar (Titisan Pele), tapi belum ada yang mampu menandingi kelincahan, kegesitan, dribble bolanya maupun dalam penyelesaian akhirnya O Fenomena.
[sunting] Internasional
Piala Dunia 1994
Penampilan Ronaldo bersama Cruzeiro membawanya untuk bergabung dengan skuad Brasil untuk menghadapi ajang Piala Dunia 1994 di Amerika Serikat. Debut internasional pertamanya bersama Seleção adalah melawan Argentina di Recife. Ronaldo tidak tampil sekalipun dalam ajang Piala Dunia 1994 yang mana dimenangkan oleh Brasil lewat kontribusi duet striker Romario dan Bebeto. Adapun penampilan pertama Ronaldo dalam ajang resmi bersama Seleção adalah pada Olimpiade 1996 di Atlanta. Saat itu ia bermain dengan nama Ronaldinho di punggungnya dikarenakan ada rekan setimnya yang juga bernama Ronaldo Guiaro dan berusia 2 tahun lebih tua dari Ronaldo. Brasil meraih medali perunggu di Atalanta 1996.
Piala Dunia 1998
Karier Ronaldo yang terus meroket bersama FC Barcelona dan Inter Milan membuatnya difavoritkan untuk meraih gelar Piala Dunia nya yang pertama sebagai pemain utama. Ditambah dengan gelar Pemain Terbaik Dunia versi FIFA dalam 2 tahun berturut-turut membuat prediksi bahwa Seleção akan meraih gelar kelimanya di Prancis makin melambung. Selama turnamen, Ronaldo menunjukkan permainan impresif dengan mencetak 4 gol dan 3 assist. Berpasangan dengan Bebeto di lini depan, Ronaldo membawa Brasil ke final Piala Dunia melawan tuan rumah Prancis di stadion Saint Denis. Namun 72 menit sebelum kick-off nama Ronaldo ditarik dari daftar starter melawan Prancis dengan alasan menderita epilepsi, hal yang mana masih menjadi misteri sampai saat ini. Ronaldo tetap tampil dalam final itu dan tidak bisa berbuat banyak dalam pertandingan sehingga Prancis memenangkan trofi Piala Dunia untuk pertama kalinya dengan keunggulan 3-0.
Piala Dunia 2002
Setelah sembuh dari cedera selama hampir 2 tahun, Seleção kembali memanggil Ronaldo, menyusul penampilannya yang makin membaik bersama Inter Milan. Pelatih Brasil, Mario Zagalo menjadikan Ronaldo bagian dari trio penyerang Seleção bersama dengan Rivaldo dan Ronaldinho. Penampilan impresif trio yang dijuluki 3 R berhasil membawa Brasil sekali lagi tampil di final dalam 3 Piala Dunia terakhir. Kali ini melawan Jerman yang mengandalkan kiper Oliver Kahn. Seleção kali ini meraih hasil maksimal dengan mengalahkan Jerman 2-0, kedua gol diborong oleh Il Fenômeno yang juga memastikan dirinya meraih penghargaan sebagai pencetak gol terbanyak dengan 8 gol. Ia juga menyamai rekor legenda Brasil, Pelé yang telah mencetak 12 gol selama tampil dalam ajang Piala Dunia.
Piala Dunia 2006
Ronaldo mengawali Piala Dunia 2006 dengan diselimuti kontroversi mengenai berat badannya yang tampak melebihi berat ideal. Ia dikritik karena kondisinya dianggap kurang fit serta penampilannya yang buruk. Meskipun begitu, pada pertandingan ketiga di babak pertama melawan Jepang, ia mencetak 2 gol yang membawanya sejajar dengan Gerd Müller sebagai pencetak gol terbanyak di Piala Dunia sepanjang sejarah dengan 14 gol. Satu gol yang dicetaknya saat melawan Ghana pada 27 Juni menjadikannya pencetak gol terbanyak sepanjang sejarah Piala Dunia dengan 15 gol. Seleção sendiri gagal mempertahankan gelar juara Piala Dunia, kalah 1-0 oleh Prancis dalam babak perempat final. Ini adalah penampilan terakhir Ronaldo bersama tim nasioanl Brasil dalam ajang resmi. Ia telah mencetak 62 gol dan tampil sebanyak 92 kali dengan seragam Seleçã.
Gaya Bermain
Di awal karirnya, Ronaldo adalah tipe striker murni dengan kemampuan sprint cepat yang menusuk pertahanan lawan sambil mendribel bola dan piawai dalam menyelesaikan umpan-umpan terobosan. Kedua kaki Ronaldo merupakan senjata utamanya untuk mencetak gol demi gol, sementara kepalanya jarang di gunakan untuk mencetak gol walaupun fisiknya cukup tinggi (183 cm). Ronaldo juga mempunyai keunggulan fisik yang memungkinkan ia berduel dengan bek lawan dan mampu menahan bola ketika menunggu bantuan rekan-rekan setimnya. Gaya ini terlihat jelas saat ia bermain untuk FC Barcelona dan pada musim pertamanya berkostum Inter Milan. Ketika ia bermain untuk Real Madrid ia sedikit mengubah gaya bermain dengan banyak mencari ruang kosong di antara bek dan melepaskan tendangan jarak jauh ke arah gawang. Hal ini lebih dikarenakan fisik Ronaldo yang sudah tidak memungkinkannya untuk tetap bermain dengan gaya naturalnya seperti ketika mengawali karier. Kelebihan berat badan dan cedera yang terus menimpanya merupakan alasan bagi Ronaldo untuk mengubah gaya bermainnya. Il Fenômeno juga merupakan pemain yang handal dalam menghadapi situasi bola mati, tercatat ia pernah menjadi penendang pinalti, tendangan bebas sampai tendangan penjuru. Ia juga pernah menyandang ban kapten ketika bermain membela Inter Milan dan dalam beberapa pertandingan bersama Seleção.
Selasa, 07 Juni 2011
escherichia coli
Escherichia coli, atau biasa disingkat E. coli, adalah salah satu jenis spesies utama bakteri gram negatif. Pada umumnya, bakteri yang ditemukan oleh Theodor Escherich ini dapat ditemukan dalam usus besar manusia. Kebanyakan E. Coli tidak berbahaya, tetapi beberapa, seperti E. Coli tipe O157:H7, dapat mengakibatkan keracunan makanan yang serius pada manusia.
E. Coli yang tidak berbahaya dapat menguntungkan manusia dengan memproduksi vitamin K2, atau dengan mencegah baketi lain di dalam usus.
E. coli banyak digunakan dalam teknologi rekayasa genetika. Biasa digunakan sebagai vektor untuk menyisipkan gen-gen tertentu yang diinginkan untuk dikembangkan. E. coli dipilih karena pertumbuhannya sangat cepat dan mudah dalam penanganannya.
E. Coli yang tidak berbahaya dapat menguntungkan manusia dengan memproduksi vitamin K2, atau dengan mencegah baketi lain di dalam usus.
E. coli banyak digunakan dalam teknologi rekayasa genetika. Biasa digunakan sebagai vektor untuk menyisipkan gen-gen tertentu yang diinginkan untuk dikembangkan. E. coli dipilih karena pertumbuhannya sangat cepat dan mudah dalam penanganannya.
gamelan
Gamelan adalah ensembel musik yang biasanya menonjolkan metalofon, gambang, gendang, dan gong. Istilah gamelan merujuk pada instrumennya / alatnya, yang mana merupakan satu kesatuan utuh yang diwujudkan dan dibunyikan bersama. Kata Gamelan sendiri berasal dari bahasa Jawa gamel yang berarti memukul / menabuh, diikuti akhiran an yang menjadikannya kata benda. Orkes gamelan kebanyakan terdapat di pulau Jawa, Madura, Bali, dan Lombok di Indonesia dalam berbagai jenis ukuran dan bentuk ensembel. Di Bali dan Lombok saat ini, dan di Jawa lewat abad ke-18, istilah gong lebih dianggap sinonim dengan gamelan.
Kemunculan gamelan didahului dengan budaya Hindu-Budha yang mendominasi Indonesia pada awal masa pencatatan sejarah, yang juga mewakili seni asli indonesia. Instrumennya dikembangkan hingga bentuknya sampai seperti sekarang ini pada zaman Kerajaan Majapahit. Dalam perbedaannya dengan musik India, satu-satunya dampak ke-India-an dalam musik gamelan adalah bagaimana cara menyanikannya. Dalam mitologi Jawa, gamelan dicipatakan oleh Sang Hyang Guru pada Era Saka, dewa yang menguasai seluruh tanah Jawa, dengan istana di gunung Mahendra di Medangkamulan (sekarang Gunung Lawu). Sang Hyang Guru pertama-tama menciptakan gong untuk memanggil para dewa. Untuk pesan yang lebih spesifik kemudian menciptakan dua gong, lalu akhirnya terbentuk set gamelan.[rujukan?]
Gambaran tentang alat musik ensembel pertama ditemukan di Candi Borobudur, Magelang Jawa Tengah, yang telah berdiri sejak abad ke-8. Alat musik semisal suling bambu, lonceng, kendhang dalam berbagai ukuran, kecapi, alat musik berdawai yang digesek dan dipetik, ditemukan dalam relief tersebut. Namun, sedikit ditemukan elemen alat musik logamnya. Bagaimanapun, relief tentang alat musik tersebut dikatakan sebagai asal mula gamelan.
Penalaan dan pembuatan orkes gamelan adalah suatu proses yang kompleks. Gamelan menggunakan empat cara penalaan, yaitu sléndro, pélog, "Degung" (khusus daerah Sunda, atau Jawa Barat), dan "madenda" (juga dikenal sebagai diatonis, sama seperti skala minor asli yang banyak dipakai di Eropa.
Musik Gamelan merupakan gabungan pengaruh seni luar negeri yang beraneka ragam. Kaitan not nada dari Cina, instrumen musik dari Asia Tenggara, drum band dan gerakkan musik dari India, bowed string dari daerah Timur Tengah, bahkan style militer Eropa yang kita dengar pada musik tradisional Jawa dan Bali sekarang ini.
Interaksi komponen yang sarat dengan melodi, irama dan warna suara mempertahankan kejayaan musik orkes gamelan Bali. Pilar-pilar musik ini menyatukan berbagai karakter komunitas pedesaan Bali yang menjadi tatanan musik khas yang merupakan bagian yang tidak dapat dipisahkan dari kehidupan sehari-hari.
Kemunculan gamelan didahului dengan budaya Hindu-Budha yang mendominasi Indonesia pada awal masa pencatatan sejarah, yang juga mewakili seni asli indonesia. Instrumennya dikembangkan hingga bentuknya sampai seperti sekarang ini pada zaman Kerajaan Majapahit. Dalam perbedaannya dengan musik India, satu-satunya dampak ke-India-an dalam musik gamelan adalah bagaimana cara menyanikannya. Dalam mitologi Jawa, gamelan dicipatakan oleh Sang Hyang Guru pada Era Saka, dewa yang menguasai seluruh tanah Jawa, dengan istana di gunung Mahendra di Medangkamulan (sekarang Gunung Lawu). Sang Hyang Guru pertama-tama menciptakan gong untuk memanggil para dewa. Untuk pesan yang lebih spesifik kemudian menciptakan dua gong, lalu akhirnya terbentuk set gamelan.[rujukan?]
Gambaran tentang alat musik ensembel pertama ditemukan di Candi Borobudur, Magelang Jawa Tengah, yang telah berdiri sejak abad ke-8. Alat musik semisal suling bambu, lonceng, kendhang dalam berbagai ukuran, kecapi, alat musik berdawai yang digesek dan dipetik, ditemukan dalam relief tersebut. Namun, sedikit ditemukan elemen alat musik logamnya. Bagaimanapun, relief tentang alat musik tersebut dikatakan sebagai asal mula gamelan.
Penalaan dan pembuatan orkes gamelan adalah suatu proses yang kompleks. Gamelan menggunakan empat cara penalaan, yaitu sléndro, pélog, "Degung" (khusus daerah Sunda, atau Jawa Barat), dan "madenda" (juga dikenal sebagai diatonis, sama seperti skala minor asli yang banyak dipakai di Eropa.
Musik Gamelan merupakan gabungan pengaruh seni luar negeri yang beraneka ragam. Kaitan not nada dari Cina, instrumen musik dari Asia Tenggara, drum band dan gerakkan musik dari India, bowed string dari daerah Timur Tengah, bahkan style militer Eropa yang kita dengar pada musik tradisional Jawa dan Bali sekarang ini.
Interaksi komponen yang sarat dengan melodi, irama dan warna suara mempertahankan kejayaan musik orkes gamelan Bali. Pilar-pilar musik ini menyatukan berbagai karakter komunitas pedesaan Bali yang menjadi tatanan musik khas yang merupakan bagian yang tidak dapat dipisahkan dari kehidupan sehari-hari.
wayang
Wayang dikenal sejak zaman prasejarah yaitu sekitar 1500 tahun sebelum Masehi. Masyarakat Indonesia memeluk kepercayaan animisme berupa pemujaan roh nenek moyang yang disebut hyang atau dahyang, yang diwujudkan dalam bentuk arca atau gambar.
Wayang merupakan seni tradisional Indonesia yang terutama berkembang di Pulau Jawa dan Bali. Pertunjukan wayang telah diakui oleh UNESCO pada tanggal 7 November 2003, sebagai karya kebudayaan yang mengagumkan dalam bidang cerita narasi dan warisan yang indah dan sangat berharga (Masterpiece of Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity).
Ada versi wayang yang dimainkan oleh orang dengan memakai kostum, yang dikenal sebagai wayang orang, dan ada pula wayang yang berupa sekumpulan boneka yang dimainkan oleh dalang. Wayang yang dimainkan dalang ini diantaranya berupa wayang kulit atau wayang golek. Cerita yang dikisahkan dalam pagelaran wayang biasanya berasal dari Mahabharata dan Ramayana.
Pertunjukan wayang disetiap negara memiliki teknik dan gayanya sendiri. Dengan demikian, wayang Indonesia merupakan buatan orang Indonesia asli yang memiliki cerita, gaya, dan dalang yang luar biasa.
Kadangkala repertoar cerita Panji dan cerita Menak (cerita-cerita Islam) dipentaskan pula.
Wayang, oleh para pendahulu negeri ini mengandung arti yang sangat dalam. Sunan Kalijaga dan Raden Patah sangat berjasa dalam mengembangkan wayang. Para Wali di tanah Jawa sudah mengatur sedemikian rupa menjadi tiga bagian. Pertama Wayang Kulit di Jawa Timur, kedua Wayang Wong atau Wayang Orang di Jawa Tengah, dan ketiga Wayang Golek di Jawa Barat. Masing masing sangat bekaitan satu sama lain. Yaitu "Mana yang Isi (Wayang Wong) dan Mana yang Kulit (Wayang Kulit) harus dicari (Wayang Golek)".
Wayang merupakan seni tradisional Indonesia yang terutama berkembang di Pulau Jawa dan Bali. Pertunjukan wayang telah diakui oleh UNESCO pada tanggal 7 November 2003, sebagai karya kebudayaan yang mengagumkan dalam bidang cerita narasi dan warisan yang indah dan sangat berharga (Masterpiece of Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity).
Ada versi wayang yang dimainkan oleh orang dengan memakai kostum, yang dikenal sebagai wayang orang, dan ada pula wayang yang berupa sekumpulan boneka yang dimainkan oleh dalang. Wayang yang dimainkan dalang ini diantaranya berupa wayang kulit atau wayang golek. Cerita yang dikisahkan dalam pagelaran wayang biasanya berasal dari Mahabharata dan Ramayana.
Pertunjukan wayang disetiap negara memiliki teknik dan gayanya sendiri. Dengan demikian, wayang Indonesia merupakan buatan orang Indonesia asli yang memiliki cerita, gaya, dan dalang yang luar biasa.
Kadangkala repertoar cerita Panji dan cerita Menak (cerita-cerita Islam) dipentaskan pula.
Wayang, oleh para pendahulu negeri ini mengandung arti yang sangat dalam. Sunan Kalijaga dan Raden Patah sangat berjasa dalam mengembangkan wayang. Para Wali di tanah Jawa sudah mengatur sedemikian rupa menjadi tiga bagian. Pertama Wayang Kulit di Jawa Timur, kedua Wayang Wong atau Wayang Orang di Jawa Tengah, dan ketiga Wayang Golek di Jawa Barat. Masing masing sangat bekaitan satu sama lain. Yaitu "Mana yang Isi (Wayang Wong) dan Mana yang Kulit (Wayang Kulit) harus dicari (Wayang Golek)".
BATIK
Batik adalah salah satu cara pembuatan bahan pakaian. Selain itu batik bisa mengacu pada dua hal.
1.Yang pertama adalah teknik pewarnaan kain dengan menggunakan malam untuk mencegah meresapnya pewarnaan kedalam serat kain pada, sebagian dari kain. Dalam literatur internasional, teknik ini dikenal sebagai wax-resist dyeing.
2.Pengertian kedua adalah kain atau busana yang dibuat dengan teknik tersebut, termasuk penggunaan motif-motif tertentu yang memiliki kekhasan.
Batik Indonesia, sebagai keseluruhan teknik, teknologi, serta pengembangan motif dan budaya yang terkait, oleh UNESCO telah ditetapkan sebagai Warisan Kemanusiaan untuk Budaya Lisan dan Nonbendawi (Masterpieces of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity) sejak 2 Oktober, 2009.
Seni pewarnaan kain dengan teknik pencegahan meresapnya warna kedalam serat kain dengan menggunakan malam adalah salah satu bentuk seni kuno. Penemuan di Mesir menunjukkan bahwa teknik ini telah dikenal semenjak abad ke-4 SM, dengan diketemukannya kain pembungkus mumi yang juga dilapisi malam untuk membentuk pola.
Di Asia, teknik serupa batik juga diterapkan di Tiongkok semasa Dinasti T'ang (618-907) serta di India dan Jepang semasa Periode Nara (645-794). Di Afrika, teknik seperti batik dikenal oleh Suku Yoruba di Nigeria, serta Suku Soninke dan Wolof di Senegal.].
Di Indonesia, batik dipercaya sudah ada semenjak zaman Majapahit, dan menjadi sangat populer akhir abad XVIII atau awal abad XIX. Batik yang dihasilkan ialah semuanya batik tulis sampai awal abad XX dan batik cap baru dikenal setelah Perang Dunia I atau sekitar tahun 1920-an.
Walaupun kata "batik" berasal dari bahasa Jawa, kehadiran batik di Jawa sendiri tidaklah tercatat. G.P. Rouffaer berpendapat bahwa tehnik batik ini kemungkinan diperkenalkan dari India atau Srilangka pada abad ke-6 atau ke-7. [2]Di sisi lain, J.L.A. Brandes (arkeolog Belanda) dan F.A. Sutjipto (arkeolog Indonesia) percaya bahwa tradisi batik adalah asli dari daerah seperti Toraja, Flores, Halmahera, dan Papua.
Perlu dicatat bahwa wilayah tersebut bukanlah area yang dipengaruhi oleh Hinduisme tetapi diketahui memiliki tradisi kuna membuat batik.
G.P. Rouffaer juga melaporkan bahwa pola gringsing sudah dikenal sejak abad ke-12 di Kediri, Jawa Timur. Dia menyimpulkan bahwa pola seperti ini hanya bisa dibentuk dengan menggunakan alat canting, sehingga ia berpendapat bahwa canting ditemukan di Jawa pada masa sekitar itu.
Detil ukiran kain yang menyerupai pola batik dikenakan oleh Prajnaparamita, arca dewi kebijaksanaan buddhis dari Jawa Timur abad ke-13. Detil pakaian menampilkan pola sulur tumbuhan dan kembang-kembang rumit yang mirip dengan pola batik tradisional Jawa yang dapat ditemukan kini. Hal ini menunjukkan bahwa membuat pola batik yang rumit yang hanya dapat dibuat dengan canting telah dikenal di Jawa sejak abad ke-13 atau bahkan lebih awal.
Legenda dalam literatur Melayu abad ke-17, Sulalatus Salatin menceritakan Laksamana Hang Nadim yang diperintahkan oleh Sultan Mahmud untuk berlayar ke India agar mendapatkan 140 lembar kain serasah dengan pola 40 jenis bunga pada setiap lembarnya. Karena tidak mampu memenuhi perintah itu, dia membuat sendiri kain-kain itu. Namun sayangnya kapalnya karam dalam perjalanan pulang dan hanya mampu membawa empat lembar sehingga membuat sang Sultan kecewa. Oleh beberapa penafsir,who? serasah itu ditafsirkan sebagai batik.
Dalam literatur Eropa, teknik batik ini pertama kali diceritakan dalam buku History of Java (London, 1817) tulisan Sir Thomas Stamford Raffles. Ia pernah menjadi Gubernur Inggris di Jawa semasa Napoleon menduduki Belanda. Pada 1873 seorang saudagar Belanda Van Rijekevorsel memberikan selembar batik yang diperolehnya saat berkunjung ke Indonesia ke Museum Etnik di Rotterdam dan pada awal abad ke-19 itulah batik mulai mencapai masa keemasannya. Sewaktu dipamerkan di Exposition Universelle di Paris pada tahun 1900, batik Indonesia memukau publik dan seniman.
Semenjak industrialisasi dan globalisasi, yang memperkenalkan teknik otomatisasi, batik jenis baru muncul, dikenal sebagai batik cap dan batik cetak, sementara batik tradisional yang diproduksi dengan teknik tulisan tangan menggunakan canting dan malam disebut batik tulis. Pada saat yang sama imigran dari Indonesia ke Persekutuan Malaya juga membawa batik bersama mereka.
Budaya batik
Pahlawan wanita R.A. Kartini dan suaminya memakai rok batik. Batik motif parang yang dipakai Kartini adalah pola untuk para bangsawan
Batik adalah kerajinan yang memiliki nilai seni tinggi dan telah menjadi bagian dari budaya Indonesia (khususnya Jawa) sejak lama. Perempuan-perempuan Jawa di masa lampau menjadikan keterampilan mereka dalam membatik sebagai mata pencaharian, sehingga di masa lalu pekerjaan membatik adalah pekerjaan eksklusif perempuan sampai ditemukannya "Batik Cap" yang memungkinkan masuknya laki-laki ke dalam bidang ini. Ada beberapa pengecualian bagi fenomena ini, yaitu batik pesisir yang memiliki garis maskulin seperti yang bisa dilihat pada corak "Mega Mendung", dimana di beberapa daerah pesisir pekerjaan membatik adalah lazim bagi kaum lelaki.
Tradisi membatik pada mulanya merupakan tradisi yang turun temurun, sehingga kadang kala suatu motif dapat dikenali berasal dari batik keluarga tertentu. Beberapa motif batik dapat menunjukkan status seseorang. Bahkan sampai saat ini, beberapa motif batik tadisional hanya dipakai oleh keluarga keraton Yogyakarta dan Surakarta.
Batik Cirebon bermotif mahluk laut
Batik merupakan warisan nenek moyang Indonesia ( Jawa ) yang sampai saat ini masih ada. Batik juga pertama kali diperkenalkan kepada dunia oleh Presiden Soeharto, yang pada waktu itu memakai batik pada Konferensi PBB.
Batik dipakai untuk membungkus seluruh tubuh oleh penari Tari Bedhoyo Ketawang di keraton jawa.
Corak batik
Ragam corak dan warna Batik dipengaruhi oleh berbagai pengaruh asing. Awalnya, batik memiliki ragam corak dan warna yang terbatas, dan beberapa corak hanya boleh dipakai oleh kalangan tertentu. Namun batik pesisir menyerap berbagai pengaruh luar, seperti para pedagang asing dan juga pada akhirnya, para penjajah. Warna-warna cerah seperti merah dipopulerkan oleh Tionghoa, yang juga memopulerkan corak phoenix.
Bangsa penjajah Eropa juga mengambil minat kepada batik, dan hasilnya adalah corak bebungaan yang sebelumnya tidak dikenal (seperti bunga tulip) dan juga benda-benda yang dibawa oleh penjajah (gedung atau kereta kuda), termasuk juga warna-warna kesukaan mereka seperti warna biru. Batik tradisonal tetap mempertahankan coraknya, dan masih dipakai dalam upacara-upacara adat, karena biasanya masing-masing corak memiliki perlambangan masing-masing.
Cara pembuatan
Semula batik dibuat di atas bahan kain dengan warna putih yang terbuat dari kapas yang dinamakan kain mori. Dewasa ini batik juga dibuat di atas bahan lain seperti sutera, poliester, rayon dan bahan sintetis lainnya. Motif batik dibentuk dengan cairan lilin dengan menggunakan alat yang dinamakan canting untuk motif halus, atau kuas untuk motif berukuran besar, sehingga cairan lilin meresap ke dalam serat kain.
Kain yang telah dilukis dengan lilin kemudian dicelup kedalam larutan warna yang diinginkan, biasanya dimulai dari warna-warna muda. Pencelupan kemudian dilakukan untuk motif lain dengan warna lebih tua atau gelap. Setelah beberapa kali proses pewarnaan, kain yang telah dibatik dicelupkan ke dalam air mendidih untuk menghilangkan lilin dari dalam serat-serat kain. Jenis batik
Pembuatan batik cap
Menurut teknik
* Batik tulis adalah kain yang dihias dengan teksture dan corak batik menggunakan alat canting berbagai ukuran dan dikerjakan dengan tangan. Pembuatan batik jenis ini memakan waktu kurang lebih 2-3 bulan.
* Batik cap adalah kain yang dihias dengan teksture dan corak batik yang dibentuk dengan cap ( biasanya terbuat dari tembaga). Proses pembuatan batik jenis ini membutuhkan waktu kurang lebih 2-3 hari.
* Batik colek adalah dengan cara kain dibentang dengan kayu span untuk selanjudnya kain diwarnai dengan cara mencolekkan berbagai motiv warna dengan ujung kuas atau spon, pewarnaan bisa dikombinasi dengan Batik cap. Untuk menyelesaikan selambar kain dikerjakan oleh dua orang cukup beberapa jam.
* Batik lukis adalah proses pembuatan batik dengan cara langsung melukis pada permukaan kain putih.
Menurut asal pembuatan
Batik Jawa
batik Jawa adalah sebuah warisan kesenian budaya orang Indonesia, khususnya daerah Jawa yang dikuasai orang Jawa dari turun temurun. Batik Jawa mempunyai motif-motif yang berbeda-beda. Perbedaan motif ini biasa terjadi dikarnakan motif-motif itu mempunyai makna, maksudnya bukan hanya sebuah gambar akan tetapi mengandung makna yang mereka dapat dari leluhur mereka, yaitu penganut agama animisme, dinamisme atau Hindu dan Buddha. Batik jawa banyak berkembang di daerah Solo atau yang biasa disebut dengan batik Solo.
1.Yang pertama adalah teknik pewarnaan kain dengan menggunakan malam untuk mencegah meresapnya pewarnaan kedalam serat kain pada, sebagian dari kain. Dalam literatur internasional, teknik ini dikenal sebagai wax-resist dyeing.
2.Pengertian kedua adalah kain atau busana yang dibuat dengan teknik tersebut, termasuk penggunaan motif-motif tertentu yang memiliki kekhasan.
Batik Indonesia, sebagai keseluruhan teknik, teknologi, serta pengembangan motif dan budaya yang terkait, oleh UNESCO telah ditetapkan sebagai Warisan Kemanusiaan untuk Budaya Lisan dan Nonbendawi (Masterpieces of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity) sejak 2 Oktober, 2009.
Seni pewarnaan kain dengan teknik pencegahan meresapnya warna kedalam serat kain dengan menggunakan malam adalah salah satu bentuk seni kuno. Penemuan di Mesir menunjukkan bahwa teknik ini telah dikenal semenjak abad ke-4 SM, dengan diketemukannya kain pembungkus mumi yang juga dilapisi malam untuk membentuk pola.
Di Asia, teknik serupa batik juga diterapkan di Tiongkok semasa Dinasti T'ang (618-907) serta di India dan Jepang semasa Periode Nara (645-794). Di Afrika, teknik seperti batik dikenal oleh Suku Yoruba di Nigeria, serta Suku Soninke dan Wolof di Senegal.].
Di Indonesia, batik dipercaya sudah ada semenjak zaman Majapahit, dan menjadi sangat populer akhir abad XVIII atau awal abad XIX. Batik yang dihasilkan ialah semuanya batik tulis sampai awal abad XX dan batik cap baru dikenal setelah Perang Dunia I atau sekitar tahun 1920-an.
Walaupun kata "batik" berasal dari bahasa Jawa, kehadiran batik di Jawa sendiri tidaklah tercatat. G.P. Rouffaer berpendapat bahwa tehnik batik ini kemungkinan diperkenalkan dari India atau Srilangka pada abad ke-6 atau ke-7. [2]Di sisi lain, J.L.A. Brandes (arkeolog Belanda) dan F.A. Sutjipto (arkeolog Indonesia) percaya bahwa tradisi batik adalah asli dari daerah seperti Toraja, Flores, Halmahera, dan Papua.
Perlu dicatat bahwa wilayah tersebut bukanlah area yang dipengaruhi oleh Hinduisme tetapi diketahui memiliki tradisi kuna membuat batik.
G.P. Rouffaer juga melaporkan bahwa pola gringsing sudah dikenal sejak abad ke-12 di Kediri, Jawa Timur. Dia menyimpulkan bahwa pola seperti ini hanya bisa dibentuk dengan menggunakan alat canting, sehingga ia berpendapat bahwa canting ditemukan di Jawa pada masa sekitar itu.
Detil ukiran kain yang menyerupai pola batik dikenakan oleh Prajnaparamita, arca dewi kebijaksanaan buddhis dari Jawa Timur abad ke-13. Detil pakaian menampilkan pola sulur tumbuhan dan kembang-kembang rumit yang mirip dengan pola batik tradisional Jawa yang dapat ditemukan kini. Hal ini menunjukkan bahwa membuat pola batik yang rumit yang hanya dapat dibuat dengan canting telah dikenal di Jawa sejak abad ke-13 atau bahkan lebih awal.
Legenda dalam literatur Melayu abad ke-17, Sulalatus Salatin menceritakan Laksamana Hang Nadim yang diperintahkan oleh Sultan Mahmud untuk berlayar ke India agar mendapatkan 140 lembar kain serasah dengan pola 40 jenis bunga pada setiap lembarnya. Karena tidak mampu memenuhi perintah itu, dia membuat sendiri kain-kain itu. Namun sayangnya kapalnya karam dalam perjalanan pulang dan hanya mampu membawa empat lembar sehingga membuat sang Sultan kecewa. Oleh beberapa penafsir,who? serasah itu ditafsirkan sebagai batik.
Dalam literatur Eropa, teknik batik ini pertama kali diceritakan dalam buku History of Java (London, 1817) tulisan Sir Thomas Stamford Raffles. Ia pernah menjadi Gubernur Inggris di Jawa semasa Napoleon menduduki Belanda. Pada 1873 seorang saudagar Belanda Van Rijekevorsel memberikan selembar batik yang diperolehnya saat berkunjung ke Indonesia ke Museum Etnik di Rotterdam dan pada awal abad ke-19 itulah batik mulai mencapai masa keemasannya. Sewaktu dipamerkan di Exposition Universelle di Paris pada tahun 1900, batik Indonesia memukau publik dan seniman.
Semenjak industrialisasi dan globalisasi, yang memperkenalkan teknik otomatisasi, batik jenis baru muncul, dikenal sebagai batik cap dan batik cetak, sementara batik tradisional yang diproduksi dengan teknik tulisan tangan menggunakan canting dan malam disebut batik tulis. Pada saat yang sama imigran dari Indonesia ke Persekutuan Malaya juga membawa batik bersama mereka.
Budaya batik
Pahlawan wanita R.A. Kartini dan suaminya memakai rok batik. Batik motif parang yang dipakai Kartini adalah pola untuk para bangsawan
Batik adalah kerajinan yang memiliki nilai seni tinggi dan telah menjadi bagian dari budaya Indonesia (khususnya Jawa) sejak lama. Perempuan-perempuan Jawa di masa lampau menjadikan keterampilan mereka dalam membatik sebagai mata pencaharian, sehingga di masa lalu pekerjaan membatik adalah pekerjaan eksklusif perempuan sampai ditemukannya "Batik Cap" yang memungkinkan masuknya laki-laki ke dalam bidang ini. Ada beberapa pengecualian bagi fenomena ini, yaitu batik pesisir yang memiliki garis maskulin seperti yang bisa dilihat pada corak "Mega Mendung", dimana di beberapa daerah pesisir pekerjaan membatik adalah lazim bagi kaum lelaki.
Tradisi membatik pada mulanya merupakan tradisi yang turun temurun, sehingga kadang kala suatu motif dapat dikenali berasal dari batik keluarga tertentu. Beberapa motif batik dapat menunjukkan status seseorang. Bahkan sampai saat ini, beberapa motif batik tadisional hanya dipakai oleh keluarga keraton Yogyakarta dan Surakarta.
Batik Cirebon bermotif mahluk laut
Batik merupakan warisan nenek moyang Indonesia ( Jawa ) yang sampai saat ini masih ada. Batik juga pertama kali diperkenalkan kepada dunia oleh Presiden Soeharto, yang pada waktu itu memakai batik pada Konferensi PBB.
Batik dipakai untuk membungkus seluruh tubuh oleh penari Tari Bedhoyo Ketawang di keraton jawa.
Corak batik
Ragam corak dan warna Batik dipengaruhi oleh berbagai pengaruh asing. Awalnya, batik memiliki ragam corak dan warna yang terbatas, dan beberapa corak hanya boleh dipakai oleh kalangan tertentu. Namun batik pesisir menyerap berbagai pengaruh luar, seperti para pedagang asing dan juga pada akhirnya, para penjajah. Warna-warna cerah seperti merah dipopulerkan oleh Tionghoa, yang juga memopulerkan corak phoenix.
Bangsa penjajah Eropa juga mengambil minat kepada batik, dan hasilnya adalah corak bebungaan yang sebelumnya tidak dikenal (seperti bunga tulip) dan juga benda-benda yang dibawa oleh penjajah (gedung atau kereta kuda), termasuk juga warna-warna kesukaan mereka seperti warna biru. Batik tradisonal tetap mempertahankan coraknya, dan masih dipakai dalam upacara-upacara adat, karena biasanya masing-masing corak memiliki perlambangan masing-masing.
Cara pembuatan
Semula batik dibuat di atas bahan kain dengan warna putih yang terbuat dari kapas yang dinamakan kain mori. Dewasa ini batik juga dibuat di atas bahan lain seperti sutera, poliester, rayon dan bahan sintetis lainnya. Motif batik dibentuk dengan cairan lilin dengan menggunakan alat yang dinamakan canting untuk motif halus, atau kuas untuk motif berukuran besar, sehingga cairan lilin meresap ke dalam serat kain.
Kain yang telah dilukis dengan lilin kemudian dicelup kedalam larutan warna yang diinginkan, biasanya dimulai dari warna-warna muda. Pencelupan kemudian dilakukan untuk motif lain dengan warna lebih tua atau gelap. Setelah beberapa kali proses pewarnaan, kain yang telah dibatik dicelupkan ke dalam air mendidih untuk menghilangkan lilin dari dalam serat-serat kain. Jenis batik
Pembuatan batik cap
Menurut teknik
* Batik tulis adalah kain yang dihias dengan teksture dan corak batik menggunakan alat canting berbagai ukuran dan dikerjakan dengan tangan. Pembuatan batik jenis ini memakan waktu kurang lebih 2-3 bulan.
* Batik cap adalah kain yang dihias dengan teksture dan corak batik yang dibentuk dengan cap ( biasanya terbuat dari tembaga). Proses pembuatan batik jenis ini membutuhkan waktu kurang lebih 2-3 hari.
* Batik colek adalah dengan cara kain dibentang dengan kayu span untuk selanjudnya kain diwarnai dengan cara mencolekkan berbagai motiv warna dengan ujung kuas atau spon, pewarnaan bisa dikombinasi dengan Batik cap. Untuk menyelesaikan selambar kain dikerjakan oleh dua orang cukup beberapa jam.
* Batik lukis adalah proses pembuatan batik dengan cara langsung melukis pada permukaan kain putih.
Menurut asal pembuatan
Batik Jawa
batik Jawa adalah sebuah warisan kesenian budaya orang Indonesia, khususnya daerah Jawa yang dikuasai orang Jawa dari turun temurun. Batik Jawa mempunyai motif-motif yang berbeda-beda. Perbedaan motif ini biasa terjadi dikarnakan motif-motif itu mempunyai makna, maksudnya bukan hanya sebuah gambar akan tetapi mengandung makna yang mereka dapat dari leluhur mereka, yaitu penganut agama animisme, dinamisme atau Hindu dan Buddha. Batik jawa banyak berkembang di daerah Solo atau yang biasa disebut dengan batik Solo.
STURTUR BOROBUDUR
Candi Borobudur memiliki struktur dasar punden berundak, dengan enam pelataran berbentuk bujur sangkar, tiga pelataran berbentuk bundar melingkar dan sebuah stupa utama sebagai puncaknya. Selain itu tersebar di semua pelatarannya beberapa stupa.
Sepuluh pelataran yang dimiliki Borobudur menggambarkan secara jelas filsafat mazhab Mahayana. Bagaikan sebuah kitab, Borobudur menggambarkan sepuluh tingkatan Bodhisattva yang harus dilalui untuk mencapai kesempurnaan menjadi Buddha.
Bagian kaki Borobudur melambangkan Kamadhatu, yaitu dunia yang masih dikuasai oleh kama atau "nafsu rendah". Bagian ini sebagian besar tertutup oleh tumpukan batu yang diduga dibuat untuk memperkuat konstruksi candi. Pada bagian yang tertutup struktur tambahan ini terdapat 120 panel cerita Kammawibhangga. Sebagian kecil struktur tambahan itu disisihkan sehingga orang masih dapat melihat relief pada bagian ini.
Empat lantai dengan dinding berelief di atasnya oleh para ahli dinamakan Rupadhatu. Lantainya berbentuk persegi. Rupadhatu adalah dunia yang sudah dapat membebaskan diri dari nafsu, tetapi masih terikat oleh rupa dan bentuk. Tingkatan ini melambangkan alam antara yakni, antara alam bawah dan alam atas. Pada bagian Rupadhatu ini patung-patung Buddha terdapat pada ceruk-ceruk dinding di atas ballustrade atau selasar.
Mulai lantai kelima hingga ketujuh dindingnya tidak berelief. Tingkatan ini dinamakan Arupadhatu (yang berarti tidak berupa atau tidak berwujud). Denah lantai berbentuk lingkaran. Tingkatan ini melambangkan alam atas, di mana manusia sudah bebas dari segala keinginan dan ikatan bentuk dan rupa, namun belum mencapai nirwana. Patung-patung Buddha ditempatkan di dalam stupa yang ditutup berlubang-lubang seperti dalam kurungan. Dari luar patung-patung itu masih tampak samar-samar.
Tingkatan tertinggi yang menggambarkan ketiadaan wujud dilambangkan berupa stupa yang terbesar dan tertinggi. Stupa digambarkan polos tanpa lubang-lubang. Di dalam stupa terbesar ini pernah ditemukan patung Buddha yang tidak sempurna atau disebut juga unfinished Buddha, yang disalahsangkakan sebagai patung Adibuddha, padahal melalui penelitian lebih lanjut tidak pernah ada patung pada stupa utama, patung yang tidak selesai itu merupakan kesalahan pemahatnya pada zaman dahulu. menurut kepercayaan patung yang salah dalam proses pembuatannya memang tidak boleh dirusak. Penggalian arkeologi yang dilakukan di halaman candi ini menemukan banyak patung seperti ini.
Di masa lalu, beberapa patung Buddha bersama dengan 30 batu dengan relief, dua patung singa, beberapa batu berbentuk kala, tangga dan gerbang dikirimkan kepada Raja Thailand, Chulalongkorn yang mengunjungi Hindia Belanda (kini Indonesia) pada tahun 1896 sebagai hadiah dari pemerintah Hindia Belanda ketika itu.
Borobudur tidak memiliki ruang-ruang pemujaan seperti candi-candi lain. Yang ada ialah lorong-lorong panjang yang merupakan jalan sempit. Lorong-lorong dibatasi dinding mengelilingi candi tingkat demi tingkat. Di lorong-lorong inilah umat Buddha diperkirakan melakukan upacara berjalan kaki mengelilingi candi ke arah kanan. Bentuk bangunan tanpa ruangan dan struktur bertingkat-tingkat ini diduga merupakan perkembangan dari bentuk punden berundak, yang merupakan bentuk arsitektur asli dari masa prasejarah Indonesia.
Struktur Borobudur bila dilihat dari atas membentuk struktur Mandala.
Struktur Borobudur tidak memakai semen sama sekali, melainkan sistem interlock yaitu seperti balok-balok Lego yang bisa menempel tanpa lem.
Sepuluh pelataran yang dimiliki Borobudur menggambarkan secara jelas filsafat mazhab Mahayana. Bagaikan sebuah kitab, Borobudur menggambarkan sepuluh tingkatan Bodhisattva yang harus dilalui untuk mencapai kesempurnaan menjadi Buddha.
Bagian kaki Borobudur melambangkan Kamadhatu, yaitu dunia yang masih dikuasai oleh kama atau "nafsu rendah". Bagian ini sebagian besar tertutup oleh tumpukan batu yang diduga dibuat untuk memperkuat konstruksi candi. Pada bagian yang tertutup struktur tambahan ini terdapat 120 panel cerita Kammawibhangga. Sebagian kecil struktur tambahan itu disisihkan sehingga orang masih dapat melihat relief pada bagian ini.
Empat lantai dengan dinding berelief di atasnya oleh para ahli dinamakan Rupadhatu. Lantainya berbentuk persegi. Rupadhatu adalah dunia yang sudah dapat membebaskan diri dari nafsu, tetapi masih terikat oleh rupa dan bentuk. Tingkatan ini melambangkan alam antara yakni, antara alam bawah dan alam atas. Pada bagian Rupadhatu ini patung-patung Buddha terdapat pada ceruk-ceruk dinding di atas ballustrade atau selasar.
Mulai lantai kelima hingga ketujuh dindingnya tidak berelief. Tingkatan ini dinamakan Arupadhatu (yang berarti tidak berupa atau tidak berwujud). Denah lantai berbentuk lingkaran. Tingkatan ini melambangkan alam atas, di mana manusia sudah bebas dari segala keinginan dan ikatan bentuk dan rupa, namun belum mencapai nirwana. Patung-patung Buddha ditempatkan di dalam stupa yang ditutup berlubang-lubang seperti dalam kurungan. Dari luar patung-patung itu masih tampak samar-samar.
Tingkatan tertinggi yang menggambarkan ketiadaan wujud dilambangkan berupa stupa yang terbesar dan tertinggi. Stupa digambarkan polos tanpa lubang-lubang. Di dalam stupa terbesar ini pernah ditemukan patung Buddha yang tidak sempurna atau disebut juga unfinished Buddha, yang disalahsangkakan sebagai patung Adibuddha, padahal melalui penelitian lebih lanjut tidak pernah ada patung pada stupa utama, patung yang tidak selesai itu merupakan kesalahan pemahatnya pada zaman dahulu. menurut kepercayaan patung yang salah dalam proses pembuatannya memang tidak boleh dirusak. Penggalian arkeologi yang dilakukan di halaman candi ini menemukan banyak patung seperti ini.
Di masa lalu, beberapa patung Buddha bersama dengan 30 batu dengan relief, dua patung singa, beberapa batu berbentuk kala, tangga dan gerbang dikirimkan kepada Raja Thailand, Chulalongkorn yang mengunjungi Hindia Belanda (kini Indonesia) pada tahun 1896 sebagai hadiah dari pemerintah Hindia Belanda ketika itu.
Borobudur tidak memiliki ruang-ruang pemujaan seperti candi-candi lain. Yang ada ialah lorong-lorong panjang yang merupakan jalan sempit. Lorong-lorong dibatasi dinding mengelilingi candi tingkat demi tingkat. Di lorong-lorong inilah umat Buddha diperkirakan melakukan upacara berjalan kaki mengelilingi candi ke arah kanan. Bentuk bangunan tanpa ruangan dan struktur bertingkat-tingkat ini diduga merupakan perkembangan dari bentuk punden berundak, yang merupakan bentuk arsitektur asli dari masa prasejarah Indonesia.
Struktur Borobudur bila dilihat dari atas membentuk struktur Mandala.
Struktur Borobudur tidak memakai semen sama sekali, melainkan sistem interlock yaitu seperti balok-balok Lego yang bisa menempel tanpa lem.
20 TON KARBOL CEMARI SUNGAI CINA
Puluhan ton cairan karbol tumpah ke sungai Xin'an di China, pada Sabtu pekan lalu. Kini, karbol tersebut mencemari sungai yang merupakan sumber cadangan air minum bagi ratusan ribu orang.
Menurut laman Associated Press, Selasa, 7 Juni 2011, sebanyak 20 ton karbol tumpah saat truk tangki yang membawanya terbalik masuk ke dalam sungai. Seorang pekerja tewas pada peristiwa tersebut.
Akibat insiden ini, sungai tercemar hingga 900 kali lipat batas bahaya untuk diminum. Sebanyak 552.000 orang di pinggiran kota Hangzhou terancam tidak mendapatkan pasokan air. Warga kota lalu memborong air botolan karena takut meminum air tercemar. Tindakan ini membuat air botolan langka di beberapa tempat.
Untuk mengatasi hal ini, pemerintah setempat menutup sementara saluran air dan membuka bendungan untuk menambah volume air demi melarutkan karbol. Cairan karbol adalah cairan pembersih yang juga digunakan sebagai bahan baku pembuatan plastik dan bahan-bahan lainnya.
Terkena cairan ini secara langsung dapat menyebabkan kulit terbakar. Jika tertelan akan merusak organ dalam dan jaringan syaraf.
Menurut laman Associated Press, Selasa, 7 Juni 2011, sebanyak 20 ton karbol tumpah saat truk tangki yang membawanya terbalik masuk ke dalam sungai. Seorang pekerja tewas pada peristiwa tersebut.
Akibat insiden ini, sungai tercemar hingga 900 kali lipat batas bahaya untuk diminum. Sebanyak 552.000 orang di pinggiran kota Hangzhou terancam tidak mendapatkan pasokan air. Warga kota lalu memborong air botolan karena takut meminum air tercemar. Tindakan ini membuat air botolan langka di beberapa tempat.
Untuk mengatasi hal ini, pemerintah setempat menutup sementara saluran air dan membuka bendungan untuk menambah volume air demi melarutkan karbol. Cairan karbol adalah cairan pembersih yang juga digunakan sebagai bahan baku pembuatan plastik dan bahan-bahan lainnya.
Terkena cairan ini secara langsung dapat menyebabkan kulit terbakar. Jika tertelan akan merusak organ dalam dan jaringan syaraf.
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